8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

1/22

FACTORS THAT NEED TO BE PRESENTED FOR

TEACHING LEARNING TO BE REALISED

By

OTU JEMIMA BLESSING

109036050

POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION

FULLTIME 2010/2011

Presented To

Dr Rosita Igwe

For the course

ASE703 Concepts and Principles of Teaching

7th

of February, 2011.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

2/22

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

3/22

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

4/22

There are times when teachers change their objectives in the midst of the act of instructing. They

may change their instructional intentions (developed before they entered the classroom) because the

demands of the active instructional situation suggest that that they should do so. Indeed failure to

give up original intentions and to develop, during the active stage of teaching, more relevantintentions can lead to chaotic classroom conditions.

Defining teaching as a four-phase activity, each phase of which has distinguishable characteristics,

is a means by which order can be brought to this highly complex activity. This definition provides

an organising framework within which teaching as an abstract activity can be discussed and

analyzed. The actual act of teaching as it occurs in the lives of any particular teacher and his

students on any particular day is, however, a complex, dynamic, human activity that does not easily

lend itself to a single, stereotyped mode of description or analysis.

FOCUS OF THIS PAPER

There are many definitions of pedagogy. Perhaps the simplest is 'The science of teaching' (OxfordEnglish Dictionary). However, the term denotes more than just a set of teaching techniques.

Pedagogy encompasses:

y What is taught/learned - the contenty How it is taught or learned - approaches to teaching and learningy Why it is taught or learned - the underpinning values, philosophy or rationale.

The three are intertwined and the 'why' will have a strong influence on what is taught or learned and

how.1This paper is concerned about the approaches to effective teaching and learning.

If we take a moment to brainstorm a little on the reasons why some students in some classroomsmight learn more than students in the same or another classroom, that is what are the reasons, both

within and across classrooms and schools that influence what and how much students learn.

The major question addressed in educational psychology is, "Why do some students learn morethan other students?" Unfortunately, the possible answers to this question are enormous. Oftentimes

research findings and theories of teaching and learning seem to contradict one another. What is aneducator to do?

We discover that the complexity of teaching and learning can only be brought to effectiveness by acertain number of factors.

The Kentucky Department of Education has been working in teams to develop Characteristics of

Highly Effective Teaching and Learning as support focused on the instructional core.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

5/22

The teams have looked at the research that establishes what the characteristics are and they have

organized the characteristics around five components:

Learning climate;

Classroom assessment and reflection; Instructional rigor and student engagement; Instructional relevance and; Knowledge of content.

This paper will present the factors that aid effective teaching learning under these five components,but first the components will be analysed. Note that presentation as used here emphasises the

work of the teacher.

Components of Highly Effective Teaching and Learning

Learning Climate: a safe environment supported by the teacher in which high, clear expectations

and positive relationships are fostered; active learning is promoted.

Classroom Assessment and Reflection: the teacher and student collaboratively gather

information and reflect on learning through a systematic process that informs instruction.

Instructional Rigor and Student Engagement: a teacher supports and encourages a students

commitment to initiate and complete complex, inquiry-based learning requiring creative and critical

thinking with attention to problem solving.

Instructional Relevance: a teachers ability to facilitate learning experiences that are meaningful

to students and prepare them for their futures.

Knowledge of Content: a teachers understanding and application of the current theories,

principles, concepts and skills of a discipline.

It is important to mention that increased focus on student learning is the primary goal in using of

these characteristics.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

6/22

Some factors to be presented for teaching learning to be realised are discussed below under

the five components:

1)

LEARNING CLIMATE

Pick out Important Concepts and Skills to emphasise on for learning Is NotNecessarily an Outcome of Teaching

Cognitive research is revealing that even with what is taken to be good instruction, manystudents, including academically talented ones, understand less than we think they do. Withdetermination, students taking an examination are commonly able to identify what they have

been told or what they have read; careful probing, however, often shows that theirunderstanding is limited or distorted, if not altogether wrong. This finding suggests that

parsimony is essential in setting out educational goals:

Schools should pick the most important concepts and skills to emphasize so that they canconcentrate on the quality of understanding rather than on the quantity of information presented.

Always show positive expectations for expectations Affect PerformanceStudents respond to their own expectations of what they can and cannot learn. If they

believe they are able to learn something, whether solving equations or riding abicycle, they usually make headway. But when they lack confidence, learning eludes

them. Students grow in self-confidence as they experience success in learning, just

as they lose confidence in the face of repeated failure. Thus, teachers need to providestudents with challenging but attainable learning tasks and help them succeed.What is more, students are quick to pick up the expectations of success or failure that

others have for them. The positive and negative expectations shown by parents,counsellors, principals, peers, andmore generallyby the news media affect

students' expectations and hence their learning behaviour. When, for instance, ateacher signals his or her lack of confidence in the ability of students to understand

certain subjects, the students may lose confidence in their ability and may performmore poorly than they otherwise might. If this apparent failure reinforces the

teacher's original judgment, a disheartening spiral of decreasing confidence andperformance can result.

The act of teaching is a complex process that is influenced by a field of forces ofwhich teachers can be only in part aware and which the teacher can only

partially control so the teacher should strive to understand all the forces that

influence what will be taught in the school.The education of young people is embedded in the prevailing culture and, because it is, culturalforces of many kinds affect the process of education.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

7/22

This result in teachers being involved in a great cultural effort which, directly or indirectly, is theconcern of everybody, and which should be continuously responding to a wide range of real-world

events. The culture in which children are raised has a profound effect on their disposition and

capacity to learn. This same culture directly affects what will be taught in the school. No teachercan be aware of all these cultural forces. On the other hand, no teacher can close his classroom doorin the hope that such forces and their effects on him and his students will go away. The teacher has

not created the students who come to him; he must first accept them for what they are. He mustseek to understand those factors in his students that tend to impede or accelerate their learning and,

where possible, he must do what he can to help his students become efficient learners.

2) CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT AND REFLECTION Find out what Students know and relate them to the new concepts for what

Students Learn Is Influenced by Their Existing Ideas

People have to construct their own meaning regardless of how clearly teachers orbooks tell them things. Mostly, a person does this by connecting new information

and concepts to what he or she already believes. Conceptsthe essential units ofhuman thoughtthat do not have multiple links with how a student thinks about the

world are not likely to be remembered or useful. Or, if they do remain in memory,they will be tucked away in a drawer labelled, say, "biology course, 1995," and will

not be available to affect thoughts about any other aspect of the world. Concepts arelearned best when they are encountered in a variety of contexts and expressed in a

variety of ways, for that ensures that there are more opportunities for them tobecome imbedded in a student's knowledge system.

But effective learning often requires more than just making multiple connections ofnew ideas to old ones; it sometimes requires that people restructure their thinking

radically. That is, to incorporate some new idea, learners must change theconnections among the things they already know, or even discard some long-held

beliefs about the world. The alternatives to the necessary restructuring are to distortthe new information to fit their old ideas or to reject the new information entirely.

Students come to school with their own ideas, some correct and some not, aboutalmost every topic they are likely to encounter. If their intuition and misconceptions

are ignored or dismissed out of hand, their original beliefs are likely to win out in thelong run, even though they may give the test answers their teachers want.Mere contradiction is not sufficient; students must be encouraged to develop new

views by seeing how such views help them make better sense of the world.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

8/22

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

9/22

4) INSTRUCTIONAL RELEVANCE

Use Concrete Experiences for progression in Learning Is Usually From theConcrete to the Abstract

Young people can learn most readily about things that are tangible and directlyaccessible to their sensesvisual, auditory, tactile, and kinaesthetic. Withexperience, they grow in their ability to understand abstract concepts, manipulate

symbols, reason logically, and generalize. These skills develop slowly, however, andthe dependence of most people on concrete examples of new ideas persists

throughout life. Concrete experiences are most effective in learning when they occurin the context of some relevant conceptual structure. The difficulties many students

have in grasping abstractions are often masked by their ability to remember andrecite technical terms that they do not understand. As a result, teachersfrom

kindergarten through collegesometimes overestimate the ability of their studentsto handle abstractions, and they take the students' use of the right words as evidence

of understanding.

Use multi directional communication, the communication that emanates frommany sources (especially student sources) and is directed to many destinations

simultaneously

The teacher can instruct in group settings, i.e. a teacher and two or more students. This is often donethrough interactive processes or direct communication. Teachers can also work in group settings

where groups instruct. The instructional strategy that utilises student group activity is characterisedby the persistent use of:

o Multi directional communicationo The extensive use of the interaction separation designationo The use of the teacher strategy move of clarification where the teacher interacts with the

group.

5) KNOWLEDGE OF CONTENT Be a professional who is capable of making rational, humane, and creative decisions

regarding the teaching act.

Teaching learning makes many professional demands on the teacher. Central tothese demands is the fact that the professional makes decisions that affect the welfareof other people. The professional renders a service to other people because he has a

specialised knowledge and skills which those he serves do not have. If the teacherholds this view, then he must become capable of;

o Using a body of specialised knowledge

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

10/22

o Making rational professional decisionso Making these decisions on behalf of others.

Present to the learners concepts in form of problems to be explored, rather than asfactoids to be ingested

Ernst von Glasersfeld, the "father" of constructivism, believes that education has two mainpurposes: to empower learners to think for themselves, and to promote in the next generation waysof thinking and acting that are deemed important by the present generation (Glasersfeld, 1995).

Moreover, in his view, constructivist learning is best put into practice by dint of presenting thelearners with issues and concepts in the form of problems to be explored, rather than as factoids to

be ingested and then regurgitated. To this end, the teacher's role is very important, as is evidencedbelow:

The teacher cannot tell students what concepts to construct or how to construct them, but by

judicious use of language they can be prevented from constructing in directions which the teacherconsiders futile but which, as he knows from experience, are likely to be tried.

Nevertheless, this poses a problem, in the sense that the teacher may thwart the development ofcritical reflection on the students' part by acting in such a preventative way.

For Thomas and Harri-Augstein (1985), constructivist learning and, in general, all approaches to

learning and teaching are organized attempts to bring some kind of meaning to our lives. For them,education can be an enriching experience, as long as the meanings that emerge are personal and

significant in some part of the person's life. Meanings should also be viable, that is, they shouldprove useful in mediating one's transactions - with stored knowledge and the world around.

What has become clear is that taking a constructivist perspective on education is tantamount to

viewing education as a means of helping people to construct their own meanings.

In their attempts to understand the meaning that teachers make of their work (we will not concern

ourselves with students' meanings), researchers have resorted to a wide variety of differentmethods, ranging from looking into the thinking and planning that teachers do outside the

classroom, through ethnographic studies, to autobiographical accounts of the understandingteachers bring to their work. At any rate, it seems to be the case that, when confronted by new

challenges, a teacher strives to resolve them in ways that are commensurate with the understandingshe brings to the problem - a process that leads in turn to new horizons of understanding and

maintains that teaching is "not the passing on of a parcel of objective knowledge, but the attempt toshare what you yourself find personally meaningful" - an assertion that could be said to encapsulate

the philosophy of constructivism.

The above views have certainly blazed a trail in (language) teaching, inasmuch as they have beeninstrumental in casting the role of the teacher in a different, more liberating "mould." Teachers are

no longer seen as competent or incompetent because they are simply unique. They do not act asgateways to knowledge because they themselves embody the curriculum, conveying not just what

they know, but also their position towards it, as well as the personal ramifications which it mayhave for them.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

11/22

The teacher as reflective practitioner

It stands to reason that, if teachers are to be effective in the approaches they decide to take, they

should act in accordance with their espoused beliefs. In reality, though, this is hardly the case.According to Chris Argyris and Donald Schon (1974, 1978), there is usually a discrepancy between

what teachers say they believe (their "espoused" theories) and the ways in which they act (their"theories-in-action"). What could resolve this discrepancy is an attempt to help teachers become

"reflective practitioners" (Shon, 1983), thereby subjecting their professional practice to ongoingcritical reflection and making clear their own particular world view. Smyth (1991: 116) suggests

that this critical reflection can be fostered by means of asking a number of questions:

y What do my practices say about my assumptions, values and beliefs about teaching?y Where did these ideas come from?y What views of power do they embody?y Whose interests do my practices seem to serve?

While critical reflection is not negative in its own right, it does imply that teachers should becognisant of their belief systems, in order to monitor how far their actions reflect those beliefs.

However, in keeping with constructivism, becoming effective and autonomous is a shared process,whereby both teachers and learners monitor, reflect, and act. Thus, a teacher needs to look both

inwards and outwards. She needs to become aware of others' points of view, as well as her ownbeliefs - about learners, about learning per se, and about herself.

Teachers' beliefs

Beliefs cannot be defined or evaluated, but there are a number of things that we should know aboutthem. Beliefs are culturally bound and, since they are formed early in life, they tend to be resistant

to change. By virtue of the fact that they are difficult to measure, we almost always have to inferpeople's beliefs from the ways in which they act rather than from what they say they believe.

Beliefs about learners

Teachers hold any or a combination of beliefs about their students. Roland Meighan (1990)

suggests that there are at least seven different ways in which teachers construe learners and thatsuch evaluative constructions have a profound influence on their classroom practice. So, according

to him, learners may be construed as:

y resistersy receptaclesy raw materialy clientsy partnersy individual explorersy democratic explorers

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

12/22

These constructs are seen in terms of a continuum which mirrors the nature of the teacher-learnerpower relationship. Thus, the first three constructs are teacher dominated, whereas the latter involve

learner participation.

More specifically, the notion of learners as resisters sees learners as recalcitrant individuals who do

not wish to learn. This assumption, however, gives rise to the assertion that punishment is the mostappropriate way of overcoming such "recalcitrance."

An even more common conception of learners is one in which they are viewed as receptacles to befilled with knowledge. The teacher is seen as having a "jug" of knowledge which he pours into the

learners' "mugs." This is what Freire (1970) describes as the "banking" concept of education, wherelearners are like bank accounts where deposits are made and drawn upon.

Even though we have not dwelled upon Meighan's theory in detail, it should be apparent by nowthat constructivism fits more comfortably with the latter end of the abovementioned continuum.

Beliefs about learning

Teaching is not indivisible from learning. We can be good teachers only if we know what we mean

by learning because only then can we know what we expect our learners to achieve. If our goal is to

prepare our students to pass an exam, then this will affect the way in which we teach. If we seeforeign language learning as a perennial process which has social and cultural implications, then wewill take a different approach to teaching it. Gow and Kember (1993) suggest that most approaches

to learning can be subsumed under any of the following points:

ya quantitative increase in knowledge

y memorisationy the acquisition of facts and procedures which can be retained and / or used in practicey the abstraction of meaningy an interpretative process aimed at the understanding of realityy some form of personal change

Teachers' beliefs about themselves

For humanistic teachers, teaching is essentially a personal expression of the self, which has

particular implications with regard to teachers' views of themselves, since a teacher who lacks self-

esteem will not be able to build the self-esteem of others. The teacher who does not accept hislearners for who they are makes it difficult for them to accept themselves. By the same token, the

language teacher needs to impart a sense of self-confidence in using the language, while at the sametime respecting learners' attempts to communicate in the foreign language.

Apart from the five components discussed above, the following model is an attempt to considermost of the possible answers to the question: Why do some students learn more than others?

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

13/22

According to the model, the reasons can be classified into four categories.

A Transactional Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

o Context All those factors outside of the classroom that might influence teaching andlearning.

o Input Those qualities or characteristics of teachers and students that they bring withthem to the classroom experience

o Classroom Processes Teacher and student behaviours in the classroom as well assome other variables such as classroom climate and teacher/student relationships

o Output Measures of student learning taken apart from the normal instructionalprocess.

OUTPUT

In my opinion, the most important of these categories is the Output category because the variables

in the rest of the categories are used to predict or relate to the variables measured in this one. Forexample, when we ask "Why do some students learn more than other students?" we must first be

clear about what we mean by "learning." We must also be clear about how we measure learning.

At the present time in this country, when we say "How well or how much has the student learned"we mean "How well has the student done on a standardized measure of student achievement in the

basic skills of Reading, Language Arts, and Mathematics?" If we change what we mean by learning

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

14/22

(we want to know how much Science or Social Studies students have learned or we want to know ifthey have developed appropriate social skills) or if we change the particular measure of learning

(use the Metropolitan Achievement Test instead of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills), then we maychange the important variables that relate to student learning. As we will see, there are a variety of

outcomes that are important in today's world (such as cognitive development and character) that are

not presently discussed when we talk about student learning. I believe the most important categoryis Output because once that has been defined it impacts the importance of the variables in the othercategories.

CLASSROOM PROCESSES

The second most important category, at least from the perspective of the educational institution and

educational psychology, is the Classroom Processes category. This includes all the variables thatwould occur in the classroom. There are three subcategories: Teacher Behavior, Student Behavior,

Other/Miscellaneous.

The category of Teacher Behavior consists of all the actions a teacher would make in the classroom

and includes three additional subcategories: Planning, Management, and Instruction.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

15/22

Planning refers to all of those activities a teacher might do to get ready to interact with students in

the classroom. Management refers to controlling student behavior, while instruction refers toactually guiding student learning. There are a variety of specific teacher classroom variables that

have been related to student learning. For example, Walberg (1986), in a meta-analysis of teachereffectiveness research found support for the following individual variables:

y Use of positive reinforcementy

Cues and corrective feedbacky Cooperative learning activitiesy Higher order questioningy Use of advance organizers

However, Rosenshine (1995) showed that the approach to instruction labeled direct or explicitinstruction was most likely to positively impact on learning as measured by scores on standardized

tests of basic skills. Alternatively, changing the desired outcome measure puts the focus on differentinstructional methods. For example, if the desired outcome is creativity and independence, then

open education may be a better alternative (Giaconia & Hedges, 1982). Alternately, if betterrelationships among diverse students are the goal, the cooperative learning would appear to be the

better instructional method (Slavin, 1995). Therefore, it is important to specify desired outcomesand their measures before decisions are made as to the implementation of specific instructional

methods.

Given the moderate correlations between teacher behaviour and student learning as measuredoutside the classroom, however, it seems prudent to focus on student behaviour within the

classroom and the impact that teacher behaviour has on that set of variables. Student Behaviourincludes all of the actions a student would make in the classroom and includes one very important

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

16/22

variable (at least in relationship to predicting student achievement on standardized tests) and that isAcademic Learning Time (ALT). ALT is defined as "the amount of time students are successfully

covering content that will be tested" (Squires, Huitt, Segars, 1983). ALT is a combination of threeseparate variables: Content Overlap, Involvement, and Success. Content Overlap is defined as "the

percentage of the content covered on the test actually covered by students in the classroom" and is

sometimes referred to as "Time on Target." Involvement is the "amount of time students areactively involved in the learning process" and is often referred to as "Time on Task." Success isdefined as the "extent to which students accurately complete the assignments they have been

given."

A high level of Academic Learning Time means that

1) Students are covering important (tested/evaluated) content;

2) Students are "on-task" most of the class period; and

3) Students are successful on most the assignments they complete. These three variables can berelatively easily measured and can be considered the vital signs of a classroom. If all of these areappropriate, there is a high probability that the classroom is functioning well. However, if any one

of these variables is lower than expected, further inspection of classroom processes should beundertaken.

There are a variety of other classroom factors which have been related to student achievement such

as the classroom climate and the opportunity for students to engage in leadership roles.

One of the most important concepts that have been developed in educational psychology during the

past 30 years is that classroom process variables are the most direct link to student achievement

(Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). More specifically, the teacher's classroom behaviour (incorporatedin the categories of planning, management and instruction) has a direct influence on studentbehaviour (most importantly, Academic Learning Time) which, in turn, is most directly linked to

measures of student achievement.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

17/22

INPUT

The third major category of variables, Input, refers to descriptions of teachers and students prior to

their coming into the classroom. There are again two important subcategories: TeacherCharacteristics and Student Characteristics. Some important subcategories of teacher characteristics

includes the teacher's values and beliefs, knowledge, thinking and communication skills,performance skills, and personality. Of course, there are many more possible subcategories, but

these seem to be the most important.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

18/22

The most important teacher characteristic (in terms of predicting how well teachers will perform inthe classroom as well as student achievement) seems to be the teacher's values and belief or more

particularly Teacher Efficacy (Ashton, 1984). This variable is a measure of the teacher's belief that

students can learn and that he/she can teach. Another important set of teacher characteristicsincludes the teacher's knowledge with respect to the content domain (knowledge of subject matterto be taught), human growth and development (theories, topics, and stages), learning theory

(behaviouristic, cognitive, constructivist, humanistic, social cognition), and the teaching/learningprocess (concepts and principles as well as their application in formal and informal environments).

This course is designed to address three of these important areas: human growth and development,learning theory, and the teaching/learning process.

In the state of Georgia, a teacher's knowledge is evaluated through the completion of college-level

courses and passing the Teacher Certification Test (TCT). At VSU, one requirement related to ateacher's thinking and communication skills is successful completion of a speech course at the

undergraduate level. Performance skills are measured through a requirement of student teaching andan annual evaluation using the Georgia Teacher Observation Instrument (GTOI). Finally, while

there is no single personality that seems to make the "best" teacher, it is certainly a variable that hasattracted a lot of interest. One measure of personality that has become popular in education circles

is the Keirsey Temperament Scale (a version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator).

There are a wide variety of Student Characteristics that have been related to classroom behaviour

and student achievement. Bloom and other researchers (e.g., Anderson & Block, 1977; Bloom,1971) engaged in the development of mastery learning have shown that when time to learn is

allowed to vary, a student's prior knowledge is most important. Other researchers have shown thatwhen time to learn is held constant, as it is in most learning environments in the United States, then

a student's intelligence or academic ability is most important. This issue of "time to learn" is veryimportant. If we truly believe that everyone can learn and that it is important to learn, then it would

seem we would make a greater effort to provide the appropriate time to learn. However, if webelieve that ability is more important and that only the most capable individuals can learn all we

want them to learn, then the present system will continue to produce a result that verifies thatexpectation. Other student characteristics that have been found to be important include study habits,

Age, Sex/Gender, Motivation, Learning Style, Cognitive development, Socioemotionaldevelopment, Moral and character development, and Race/Ethnicity. In fact, the list of important

student characteristics is so long entire books have been written on them.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

19/22

The above is a simple example of how some of these variables might interact. Context variablessuch as the size and region of the community impact teacher and student characteristics while the

context variables associated with the family impact student characteristics. Of course, there are

other important context variables that could also be considered as described above. Additionalcontext variables associated with school and state policies combine with teacher and studentcharacteristics to impact teacher behavior. Teacher behavior along with student characteristics

influence student behavior, especially those variables associated with Academic Learning Time.Student classroom behavior then influences teacher classroom behavior in an interactive pattern.

Student classroom behavior, therefore, is the most direct influence on student achievement asmeasured by instruments influenced by state policies. Student achievement at the end of one school

year then becomes a student characteristic at the beginning of the next. Additional outcomevariables that are important for success in the information age can be considered in the same

manner.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

20/22

CONCLUSION

There is no such thing as "the perfect teacher." Giving a homily on what "good teachers" do appears

to be unhelpful and unrewarding to those who want to improve their own practices. A far morehelpful approach seems to be the study of teachers' beliefs, which inform and shape their actions.Constructivism lies at the heart of this endeavour, as it offers valuable insights into the cognitive as

well as affective aspects of the relationship between teachers and their self-images, and teachers andstudents. Teaching is not merely information or knowledge, but mainly an expression of values and

attitudes. What teachers usually get back from their students is what they themselves have broughtto the teaching-learning process.

REFERENCES

y Argyris, C. and D. A. Shon. 1974. Theory in Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.y Argyris, C. and D. A. Schon. 1978. Perceptions of self-managed learning Opportunities and

academic locus of control: a causal interpretation, Journal of Educational Psychology, 70(b), 988-92.

y Ashton-Warner, S. 1980. Teachers. 2nd edn. London: Virago.y Clark, C. and P. Peterson. 1986. Teachers?? Thought processes. In M. Wittrock (Ed.)

Handbook of Research on Teaching, 255-96. New York: Macmillan.y Connelly, F. and D. Clandinin. 1990. Stories of experience and narrative inquiry.

Educational Researcher, 19(4), 2-14.y Freire, P. 1970. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.y

Gow, L. and D. Kember. 1993. Conceptions of teaching and their relationship to Studentlearning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 20-33.

y Louden, W. 1991. Collegiality, curriculum and educational change. Curriculum Journal, 2(3), 361-73.

y Meighan, R. and J. Meighan. 1990. Alternative roles for learners with particular reference tolearners as democratic explorers in teacher education courses. The School Field, 1(1), 61-77.

y Salmon, P. 1988. Psychology for Teachers: an alternative approach. London: Hutchinson.y Schon, D. A. 1983. The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. New

York: Basic Books.y Smyth, J. 1991. Teachers as Collaborative Learners. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.y Thomas, L. and S. harri-Augstein. 1995. Self-organised Learning: Foundations of a

conversational science for psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

y von Glasersfeld, E. 1995. Radical Constructivism. London: Falmer.y Williams, M. and R. L. Burden. 1997. Psychology for Language Teachers: a social

constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

y James M. Thyne1963. The Psycholgy of Learning and Techniques of Teaching: Universityof London Press.

y John B. Hough and James K. Duncan1970. Teaching: Description and analysis: Addison-wesley publishing Company.

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

21/22

8/6/2019 ASE 703 III

22/22