Br J Sports Med 1997 Doherty 337 41
7
BrJt Sports Med 1997;31:337-341 Comparison o f lung volume i n Greek swimmers, land based athletes, a n d sedentary controls using allometric scaling Michael Doherty, Lygeri Dimitriou Abstract Objective-To compare lung volumes i n a large cross sectional sample o f Greek swimmers, land based athletes, a n d sed- entary controls b y means o f allometric scaling. Methods-Four hundred and fifty nine asymptomatic Greek children a n d young adults (age 10-21 years), including 1 5 9 swimmers, 1 3 0 land based athletes, a n d 1 7 0 sedentary controls, performed forced expiratory manoeuvres into a portable spirometer. Measurements included forc- e d vital capacity, forced expiratory vol- i n o n e second (FEVy1O), an d peak expiratory flow. Body mass a nd stature were also measured using standardised anthropometric techniques. Results-Logarithmic transformations showed that I FEVy10 w a s highly related t o I n stature i n males a n d females ( r = 0.93 a n d 0.86 respectively, P<0.001) a n d were used t o determine t h e exponent i n a n allo- metric equation which also included a g e a n d age2. Resulting power functions, were 0.64 (0.18) litres/m2 6 9 a n d 0.33 (0.24) litres/m232 fo r males a n d females respectively (mean (SE)). T h e male and female swimming groups h ad larger FEV1 0 thanboth land based athletes a n d sedentary controls (one w a y analysis o f variance, P<0.001). I n addition, male national standard swimmers ( n = 3 8 ) h a d superior FE V 1 0 i n comparison with male non-national standard swimmers ( n = 2 4 ; t test, P<0.05). However, when years o f swimming training wa s controlled fo r b y analysis o f covariance, t h e difference i n FEV1.0 between t h e t w o groups w a s no longer evident. Conclusions-Swimmers have superior FEVy10 independent o f stature an d a g e i n comparison with both land based athletes a n d sedentary controls. In addition, male national standard swimmers have supe- rior FEV1.0 independent o f stature a n d a g e i n comparison with male non-national standard swimmers. When years of train- in g i s controlled for, the difference i n FEVy10 between t h e t w o groups i s no longer evident. This suggests that t h e years o f swimming training and/or t h e earlier a g e a t which training begins m a y have a significant influence o n subsequent FEV1.0 a n d swimming performance. However, because o f th e cross sectional nature o f this study, the results d o no t exclude genetic endowment a s a major determi- nant o f t h e superior lung volume observed i n swimmers. (BrJ Sports M e d 1997;31:337-341) Keywords: swimming physiology; intensive training; respiratory muscle strength; allometric modelling T h e characteristic skeletal features of swimmers appear a t an early age. Swimmers tend t o be tall for their body mass' an d have high bi-acromial breadths fortheir a g e group.2 I n addition, i t h a s repeatedly been shown that static lung volume a n d pulmonary diffusing capacity of swimmers a r e greater than in age- a n d stature-predicted values, sedentary controls,3-7 o r highly trained land based athletes.4 7-11 T h e relationship b e - tween structure a n d function i n swimming appears self evident. Body length should provide a n advantage i n starting, turning, a n d finishing a n d long segments have an advantage fo r stroking technique. 2 In land based exercise t h e pulmonary system i s usually n o t considered t o b e a limitation t o performance.' I n addition, longitudinal studies o f subjects involved i n land based activities show lung volume t o b e unaffected b y short term training. ' 1 7 However, i n swimmers there a r e a number o f possible beneficial consequences o f increased lung volume.' 1 8 These include improved buoyancy resulting i n a more streamlined body position a n d therefore less drag i n t he water,' 18 increased surface area f o r g as exchange,' reduced respiratory oxygen cost a t a n y given submaximal swimming intensity,5 an d a n i n - creased intrapulmonary pressure which would a i d expulsion of t h e blood from t h e pulmonary vessels.'9 However, unlike the anthropometrical characteristics o f swimmers, which have been shown to be mostly influenced b y genetic endowment,20 21 i t i s unclear whether t he supe- rior lung function found i n swimmers i s d u e t o genetic influences or is t he result of training.3 8 - l 1 8 There i s a considerable ventila- tory strain during swimming, a n d this appears to increase t h e conditioning of t h e accessory muscles o f t h e neck a n d chest wall.'0 This m a y increase maximal static pressure, thus augment- i n g t h e swimmer's ability t o inflate an d deflate t h e lung.'8 2 2 Alternatively, swimming training m a y directly enhance lung growth b y some, as y e t unknown, mechanism.22 This i s in contrast with t h e general population where i t h a s been shown that growth i n lung volume i s entirely d u e t o growth i n body dimensions with n o additional effect o f changes i n t h e development of physical performance. 14-17 2325 Department of Sport a nd Exercise Science, University o f Luton M Doherty L Dimitriou Correspondence t o : Michael Doherty, Department o f Sport a n d Exercise Science, University o f Luton, Park Square, Luton, Beds LU 1 3JU, United Kingdom. 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Transcript of Br J Sports Med 1997 Doherty 337 41
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B r J t S p o r t s Med 1 9 9 7 ; 3 1 : 3 3 7 - 3 4 1
C o m p a r i s o n o f l u n g v o l u m e i n G r e e k s w i m m e r s ,l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s , a n d s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s u s i n g
a l l o m e t r i c s c a l i n g
M i c h a e l D o h e r t y , L y g e r i D i m i t r i o u
A b s t r a c t
O b j e c t i v e - T o compare l u n g volumes i n a
l a r g e c r os s s e c t io n al s a m p l e o f Greekswimmers, l a n d based a t h l e t e s , and s e d -
e n t a r y c o n t r o l s by mean s o f a l l o m e t r i c
s c a l i n g .
Methods-Four hu ndred and f i f t y n i n e
a s y m p t o m a t i c Greek c h i l d r e n and younga d u l t s ( a g e 1 0 - 2 1 y e a r s ) , i n c l u d i n g 1 5 9
swimmers, 1 3 0 l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s , and1 7 0 s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s , p e r f o r m e d f o r c e d
e x p i r a t o r y manoeuvres i n t o a p o r t a b l e
s p i r o m e t e r . Measurements i n c l u d e d f o r c -
e d v i t a l c a p a c i t y , f o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y v o l -
um i n one s e c o n d ( F E V y 1 O ) , and p e a ke x p i r a t o r y f l o w . Body mas s and s t a t u r e
were a l s o measured u s i n g s t a n d a r d i s e d
a n t h r o p o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s .
R e s u l t s - L o g a r i t h m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
showed t h a t I n F E V y 1 0 w as h i g h l y r e l a t e d t o
I n s t a t u r e i n males and f e m a l e s ( r = 0 . 9 3
and 0 . 8 6 r e s p e c t i v e l y , P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) and wereu s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x p o n e n t i n an a l l o -
m e t r i c e q u a t i o n which a l s o i n c l u d e d a g eand a g e 2 . R e s u l t i n g power f u n c t i o n s ,
F E V , I J s t a t u r e b , were 0 . 6 4 ( 0 . 1 8 ) l i t r e s / m 2 6 9and 0 . 3 3 ( 0 . 2 4 ) l i t r e s / m 2 3 2 f o r males andf e m a l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y (mean ( S E ) ) . Themale and f e m a l e swimming g r o u p s hadl a r g e r FEV1 0 t h a n b o t h l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s
and s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s ( o n e w ay a n a l y s i so f v a r i a n c e , P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , malen a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d swimmers ( n = 3 8 ) hads u p e r i o r F E V 1 0 i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h malen o n - n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d swimmers ( n = 2 4 ;
t t e s t , P < 0 . 0 5 ) . H o w e v e r , when y e a r s o fswimming t r a i n i n g w as c o n t r o l l e d f o r by
a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i a n c e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i nF E V 1 . 0 b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s w as nol o n g e r e v i d e n t .
Conclusions-Swimmers h a v e s u p e r i o r
F E V y 1 0 i n d e p e n d e n t o f s t a t u r e and a g e i n
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h b o t h l a n d based a t h l e t e sand s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s . I n a d d i t i o n , malen a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d swimmers h a v e s u p e -r i o r F E V 1 . 0 i n d e p e n d e n t o f s t a t u r e and a g ei n comparison w i t h male n o n - n a t i o n a ls t a n d a r d swimmers. When y e a r s o f t r a i n -i n g i s c o n t r o l l e d f o r , t h e d i f f er en c e i n
F E V y 1 0 b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s i s no l o n g e re v i d e n t . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y e a r s o f
swimming t r a i n i n g a n d / o r t h e e a r l i e r a g ea t which t r a i n i n g b e g i n s m a y h a v e as i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on s u b s e q u e n t F E V 1 . 0and s w i mm ing p e r f o r m a n c e . H o w e v e r ,b e c a u s e o f t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l n a t u r e o ft h i s s t u d y , t h e r e s u l t s do n o t e x c l u d e
g e n e t i c endowment a s a major d e t e r m i -n a n t o f t h e s u p e r i o r l u n g volume o b s e r v e di n swimmers.( B r J S p o r t s Med 1 9 9 7 ; 3 1 : 3 3 7 - 3 4 1 )
K e y w o r d s : s w i m m i n g p h y s i o l o g y ; i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g ;r e s p i r a t o r y m u s c l e s t r e n g t h ; a l l o m e t r i c m o d e l l i n g
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s k e l e t a l f e a t u r e s o f s w i m m e r s
a p p e a r a t a n e a r l y a g e . Swimmers t e n d t o b e t a l lf o r t h e i r b o d y m a s s ' a n d h a v e h i g h b i - a c r o m i a l
b r e a d t h s f o r t h e i r a g e g r o u p . 2 I n a d d i t i o n , i t h a s
r e p e a t e d l y b e e n shown t h a t s t a t i c l u n g v o l u m ea n d p u l m o n a r y d i f f u s i n g c a p a c i t y o f s w i m m e r s
a r e g r e a t e r t h a n i n a g e - a n d s t a t u r e - p r e d i c t e d
v a l u e s , s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s , 3 - 7 o r h i g h l y t r a i n e d
l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s . 4 7 - 1 1 The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e -
t w e e n s t r u c t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n i n s w i m m i n ga p p e a r s s e l f e v i d e n t . Body l e n g t h s h o u l d
p r o v i d e a n a d v a n t a g e i n s t a r t i n g , t u r n i n g , a n d
f i n i s h i n g a n d l o n g s e g m e n t s h a v e a n a d v a n t a g e
f o r s t r o k i n g t e c h n i q u e . 2 I n l an d b a s e d e x e r c i s et h e p u l m o n a r y s y s t e m i s u s u a l l y n o t c o n s i d e r e d
t o b e a l i m i t a t i o n t o p e r f o r m a n c e . ' I n a d d i t i o n ,l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s o f s u b j e c t s i n v o l v e d i n l a n d
b a s e d a c t i v i t i e s s h o w l u n g v o l u m e t o b e
u n a f f e c t e d b y s h o r t t e r m t r a i n i n g . ' 1 7 H o w e v e r ,i n s w i m m e r s t h e r e a r e a number o f p o s s i b l e
b e n e f i c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f i n c r e a s e d l u n gv o l u m e . ' 1 8 T h e s e i n c l u d e i m p r o v e d b u o y a n c yr e s u l t i n g i n a more s t r e a m l i n e d b o d y p o s i t i o na n d t h e r e f o r e l e s s d r a g i n t h e w a t e r , ' 1 8
i n c r e a s e d s u r f a c e a r e a f o r g a s e x c h a n g e , 'r e d u c e d r e s p i r a t o r y o x y g e n c o s t a t a n y g i v e n
s u b m a x i m a l s w i m m i n g i n t e n s i t y , 5 a n d a n i n -c r e a s e d i n t r a p u l m o n a r y p r e s s u r e w h i c h w o u l da i d e x p u l s i o n o f t h e b l o o d f r o m t h e p u l m o n a r y
v e s s e l s . ' 9 H o w e v e r , u n l ik e t h e a n t h r o p o m e t r i c a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s w i m m e r s , w h i c h h a v e b e e n
s h o w n t o b e m o s t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y g e n e t i ce n d o w m e n t , 2 0 2 1 i t i s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e s u p e -r i o r l u n g f u n c t i o n f o u n d i n s w i m m e r s i s d u e t og e n e t i c i n f l u e n c e s o r i s t h e r e s u l t o f
t r a i n i n g . 3 8 - l 1 8 T h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e v e n t i l a -t o r y s t r a i n d u r i n g s w i m m i n g , a n d t h i s a p p e a r st o i n c r e a s e t h e c o nd i t io ni ng o f t h e a c c e s s o r y
m u s c l e s o f t h e n e c k a n d c h e s t w a l l . ' 0 T h i s mayi n c r e a s e m a x i m a l s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , t h u s a u g m e n t -i n g t h e s w i m m e r ' s a b i l i t y t o i n f l a t e a n d d e f l a t et h e l u n g . ' 8 2 2 A l t e r n a t i v e l y , s w i m m i n g t r a i n i n gmay d i r e c t l y e n h a n c e l u n g g r ow t h b y s o m e , a s
y e t u n k n o w n , m e c h a n i s m . 2 2 T h i s i s i n c o n t r a s tw i t h t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n w h e r e i t h a s b e e nshown t h a t g r o w t h i n l u n g v o l u m e i s e n t i r e l yd u e t o g r o w t h i n b o d y d i m e n s i o n s w i t h n oa d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t o f c h a n g e s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n to f p h y s i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e . 1 4 - 1 7 2 3 2 5
Department o f S p o r tand E x e r c i s e S c i e n c e ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f LutonMD o h e r t yL D i m i t r i o u
C o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o :M i c h a e l D o h e r t y ,
D e p a r t m e n t o f S p o r t a n d
E x e r c i s e S c i e n c e , U n i v e r s i t yo f L u t o n , P a r k S q u a r e ,
L u t o n , B e d s LU 1 3 J U ,U n i t e d K i n g d o m .
A c c e p t e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n
2 8 Ma y 1 9 9 7
3 3 7
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D o he rt y , D i m i t ri o u
Most o f t h e s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e dl u n g v o l u m e i n s w i m m e r s h a v e made c o m p a r i -
sons w i t h e i t h e r m a t c h e d c o n t r o l s or p r e d i c t e d
v a l u e s . Few s t u d i e s h a v e u s e d a n a l l o m e t r i c
m o d e l l i n g a p p r o a c h , 8 a t o p i c o f r e n e w e di n t e r e s t i n s p o r t a n d e x e r c i s e s c i e n c e . 2 6 T h i s
t e c h n i q u e p r o v i d e s a t r u l y d i m e n s i o n l e s s ex -
p r e s s i o n o f d a t a w h i c h c an b e u s e d i ns u b s e q u e n t c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n g r o u p s t h a td i f f e r i n b o d y s i z e . 2 7 T h e r e f o r e t h e a i m o f t h i ss t u d y was t o c o m p a r e l u n g v o l u m e i n a l a r g ecross s e c t i o n a l s a m p l e o f s w i m m e r s , l a n d b a s e d
a t h l e t e s , and s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s b y means o fa l l o m e t r i c s c a l i n g .
Methods
F ou r h un dr ed a n d f i f t y n i n e a s y m p t o m a t i cw h i t e Greek c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s ( 1 0 - 2 1 years
o f a g e ) were t e s t e d . Swimmers a n d l a n d b a s e da t h l e t e s w e r e a d m i t t e d on t h e c r i t e r i o n o f
t r a i n i n g a m i n i m u m o f t h r e e t i m e s per week f o rt h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s p o r t s . Land b a s e d a t h l e t e si n c l u d e d s u b j e c t s w ho t r a i n e d a n d c o m p e t e d i na t h l e t i c s , b a s k e t b a l l , c a n o e i n g , a n d r o w i n g .
S e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s were a d m i t t e d on t h e c r i t e -r i o n o f not b e i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h a ny p a r t i c u l a rs p o r t and not h a v i n g a r e g u l a r e x e r c i s eprogramme ( t h a t i s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f par-
t i c i p a t i n g i n c o m p u l s o r y p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n
c l a s s e s i n s c h o o l ) . B e f o r e t e s t i n g , i n f o r m a t i o n
on s u b j e c t a g e , d a t e o f b i r t h , a n d t h e number o f
y e a r s o f t r a i n i n g ( f o r l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s and
s w i m m e r s ) was o b t a i n e d v e r b a l l y f r o m t h e par-
en t or c o a c h . S t a t i c l u n g f u n c t i o n m e a s u r e -
m en t s were p e r f o r m e d w i t h a p o r t a b l e t r a n s -
d u c e r s p i r o m e t e r ( M i c r o l a b 3 3 0 0 ; C r a n l e a
C o , B i r m i n g h a m , U K ) . S u b j e c t s p e r f o r m e d t h e
t e s t i n a s t a n d i n g p o s i t i o n w i t h a nos e c l i p i np l a c e a n d s p i r o m e t e r h e l d i n one h a n d . A f t e r a
m a x i m a l i n h a l a t i o n , s u b j e c t s s e a l e d t h e i r l i p sa r o u n d t h e m o u t h p i e c e a n d e x h a l e d as h a r da n d as f a s t as p o s s i b l e . 2 8 S u b j e c t s were e n c o u r -
a g e d t o c o n t i n u e e x h a l i n g f o r a t l e a s t ones e c o n d so t h a t f o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y v o l u m e f o rone s e c o n d ( F E V 1 , 0 ) c o u l d b e m e a s u r e d . T e s t s
were r e p e a t e d a minimum o f t h r e e t i m e s or
u n t i l t h e tw o h i g h e s t r e c or d e d v a l u e s - t h at i s ,f o r c e d v i t a l c a p a c i t y ( F V C ) + FEV, 0 - v a r i e d
l e s s t h a n 3 . D i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t s i n c l u d e d
F V C ( l i t r e s ) , F E V y 1 0 ( l i t r e s ) , a n d p e a k e x p i r a -
t o r y f l o w ( l i t r e s / s e c o n d ) . The f o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y
r a t i o ( ) was a l s o c a l c u l a t e d ( ( F E V , O / F V C ) x1 0 0 ) . Body mass ( k g ; S e c a 7 6 1 s c a l e s , ±0 . 5 k g ;
S e c a C o . , G e r m a n y ) a n d s t a t u r e ( m ; C r a n l e aJ P 6 0 p o r t a b l e s t a d i o m e t e r , + 0 . 0 0 1 m; C r a n l e a
C o ) were a l s o m e a s u r e d u s i n g s t a n d a r d i s e d
a n t h r o p o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e s .
The t e s t i n g t o o k p l a c e i n v a r i o u s s t a d i a ,swimming p o o l s , a n d s t a t e s c h o o l s i n G r e e c ew i t h t h e f u l l w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t s
a n d t h e i r p a r e n t s , t h e G r e e k N a t i o n a l Swim-m i n g F e d e r a t i o n , a n d t h e P hy s i c al E d u c a t i o n
D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e D o d e k a n e s e C o u n t y .
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e don a l l measurements a n d t h i s was f o l l o w e d b yone way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a nc e t o d e t e r m i n e
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o up s on t h e s e measure-
ments. Where a s i g n i f i c a n t F v a l u e was
T a b l e 1 M a l e a n d f e m a l e s u b j e c t d e t a i l s ( m e a n ( S D ) )
S w i m m e r s L a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s S e d e n t a r y
M a l e s F e m a l e s M a l e s F e m a l e s M a l e s F e m a l e s
( n = 8 2 ) ( n = 7 8 ) ( n = 9 0 ) ( n = 7 2 ) ( n = 6 6 ) ( n = 7 0 )
A g e ( y e a r s ) 1 5 . 1 ( 3 . 0 ) * 1 4 . 5 ( 2 . 4 ) 1 4 . 1 ( 2 . 6 ) 1 4 . 4 ( 2 . 6 ) 1 3 . 8 ( 2 . 7 ) 1 4 . 0 ( 2 . 5 )S t a t u r e ( m ) 1 . 7 0 ( 0 . 1 3 ) t 1 . 6 3 ( 0 . 1 0 ) * 1 . 6 4 ( 0 . 1 5 ) 1 . 5 9 ( 0 . 1 0 ) 1 . 6 2 ( 0 . 1 4 ) 1 . 5 7 ( 0 . 1 0 )
B o d y mass ( k g ) 6 1 . 8 ( 1 4 . 8 ) 5 1 . 7 ( 9 . 8 ) 5 9 . 0 ( 1 5 . 6 ) 5 0 . 6 ( 1 0 . 3 ) 5 6 . 3 ( 1 7 . 6 ) 4 9 . 2 ( 1 0 . 2 )
S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( o n e way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , P < 0 . 0 5 ) f r o m s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s .t S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( o n e way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , P < 0 . 0 5 ) f r o m l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s a n d s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s .
T a b l e 2 M a l e l u n g f u n c t i o n v a l u e s a s b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e a n d s a t u r a t i o n : o b s e r v e d ( m e a n ( S E ) ) a n d p r e d i c t e d( b y g e n d e r , s t a t u r e , a g e , ) v a l u e s 2 9
S w i m m e r s ( n = 8 2 ) Land b a s e d a t h l e t e s ( n = 9 0 ) S e d e n t a r y ( n = 6 6 )
O b s e r v e d P r e d i c t e d O b s e r v e d P r e d i c t e d O b s e r v e d P r e d i c t e d
FV C ( l i t r e s ) 4 . 5 ( 1 . 3 ) * 1 0 3 * 3 . 9 ( 1 . 3 ) 9 6 3 . 5 ( 1 . 1 ) 9 0
F E V , , ( l i t r e s ) 4 . 1 ( 1 . 2 ) * 1 1 1 * 3 . 4 ( 1 . 1 ) 1 0 2 3 . 1 ( 0 . 9 ) 9 7
FE R ( ) 9 0 . 9 ( 5 . 9 ) - 8 9 . 2 ( 5 . 2 ) - 8 9 . 9 ( 5 . 9 ) -
PE F ( l i t r e s / s e c o n d ) 4 8 8 ( 1 3 5 ) * 9 6 * 4 1 0 ( 1 2 8 ) 8 8 3 8 1 ( 1 1 1 ) 8 3
FVC, f o r c e d v i t a l c a p a c i t y ; F E V , 0 , f o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y v o l u m e i n on e s e c o n d ; F E R , f o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y r a t i o ; P E F , p e a k e x p i r a t o r y f l o w . S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( o n e w a y a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , P < 0 . 0 5 ) f r o m l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s a n d s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s .
T a b l e 3 F e m a l e l u n g f u n c t i o n v a l u e s a s b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e a n d s a t u r a t i o n : o b s e r v e d ( m e a n ( S E ) ) and p r e d i c t e d( b y g e n d e r , s t a t u r e , a g e , o ) v a l u e s 2
S w i m m e r s ( n = 7 8 ) L a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s ( n = 7 2 ) S e d e n t a r y ( n = 7 0 )
O b s e r v e d P r e d i c t e d O b s e r v e d P r e d i c t e d O b s e r v e d P r e d i c t e d
F V C ( l i t r e s ) 3 . 5 ( 0 . 8 ) * 1 0 4 * 3 . 3 ( 0 . 7 ) t 9 6 t 2 . 9 ( 0 . 6 ) 9 1
F E V , , ( l i t r e s ) 3 . 3 ( 0 . 7 ) * 1 1 1 * 2 . 9 ( 0 . 6 ) 9 9 2 . 7 ( 0 . 6 ) 1 0 2F E R ( ) 9 3 . 4 ( 5 . 8 ) 9 1 . 9 ( 5 . 0 ) 9 3 . 7 ( 4 . 7 ) -
P E F ( l i t r e s / s e c o n d ) 396 ( 7 8 ) * 9 5 * 3 6 4 ( 7 4 ) t 9 1 t 3 2 9 ( 8 5 ) 8 3
FVC, f o r c e d v i t a l c a p a c i t y ; F E V , , , f o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y v o l u m e i n o n e s e c o n d ; FER, f o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y r a t i o ; P E F , p e a k e x p i r a t o r y f l o w . S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( o n e way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , P < 0 . 0 5 ) f r o m l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s a n d s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s .t S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( o n e way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , P < 0 . 0 5 ) f r o m s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s .
3 3 8
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L u n g v o l u m e i n s w i m m e r s
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T a b l e 6 M a l e a n d f e m a l e F E V , 9 s t a t u r e b * v a l u e s( m e a n ( S E ) )
L a n d b a s e d
S w i m m e r s a t h l e t e s S e d e n t a r y
M a l e s 0 . 6 3 ( 0 . 0 0 8 ) - 0 . 5 8 ( 0 . 0 0 8 ) 0 . 5 7 ( 0 . 0 0 7 )F e m a l e s 0 . 7 1 ( 0 . 0 0 8 ) ' 0 . 6 7 ( 0 . 0 1 2 ) ' 0 . 6 4 ( 0 . 0 9 1 )
0 . 6 4 ( 0 . 1 8 ) l i t r e s / m r 2 6 9 a n d 0 . 3 3 ( 0 . 2 4 ) l i t r e s / m 2 3 2 f o r m a l e s
a n d f e m a l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y ( m e a n ( S E ) ) .a S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( P < 0 . 0 5 ) f r o m l a n d b a s e d
a t h l e t e s a n d s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s . S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( P < 0 . 0 5 ) f r o m s e d e n t a r y
c o n t r o l s .
A3b e t w e e n t h e l u n g f u n c t i o n p a r a m e t e r s a n d
° B y o s u b j e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . L o g a r i t h m i c t r a n s f o r -m a t i o n s were p e r f o r m e d on F E V , a n d s t a t u r e
i n men a n d women, a n d t h e s e l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y- t r a n s f o r m e d d a t a w e r e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
e x p o n e n t in t h e f o l l o w i n g a l l o m e t r i c e q u a -2 6
2 0 1 . 3 0 1 . 4 0 1 . 5 0 1 . 6 0 1 . 7 0 1 . 8 0 1 . 9 0 2 t i o n ,
S t a t u r e ( i ) F E V , . 0 = s t a t u r e x e x p ( c + ( d x a g e ) + ( e x
Male i t n v n e r f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i t p s b e t w e e n FEV. a n d s t a t u r e . a g e ) 2 ) E
Swimmers o L a n d - b a s e d a t h l e t e s *
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1 . 2 0 1 . 3 0 1 . 4 0 1 . 5 0 1 . 6 0
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F i g u r e 2 F e m a l e p o w e r f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n F E V , 3 0 a n d s t a t u r e .
T a b l e 4 F E V , I s t a t u r e b * a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r m a l e s
D e g r e e s o f Sum o fS o u r c e f r e e d o m s q u a r e s Mean F s q u a r e s F r a t i o P r o b a b i l i t y ( P )
B e t w e e n g r o u p s 2 0 . 6 5 0 . 3 2 2 3 . 6 < 0 . 0 0 1
W i t h i n g r o u p s 2 3 5 3 . 2 3 0 . 0 1T o t a l 2 3 7 3 . 8 8
0 . 6 4 ( 0 . 1 8 ) l i t r e s / m 2 6 9 ( m e a n ( S E ) ) .
T a b l e 5 F E V , I s t a t u r e b * a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r f e m a l e s
D e g r e e s o f S um o fS o u r c e f r e e d o m s q u a r e s Mean F s q u a r e s F r a t i o P r o b a b i l i t y ( P )
B e t w e e n g r o u p s 2 0 . 6 0 0 . 3 0 2 0 . 7 < 0 . 0 0 1
W i t h i n g r o u p s 2 1 9 3 . 2 0 0 . 0 2
T o t a l 2 2 1 3 . 8 0
* 0 . 3 3 ( 0 . 2 4 ) l i t r e s / m 2 3 2 ( m e a n ( S E ) ) .
o b t a i n e d ( P < 0 . 0 5 ) , t h e p o s t h o c S c h e f f e ' s p r o -
c e d u r e w a s u s e d t o i d e n t i f y s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r -
e n t g r o u p s . I n o r d e r t o c o n t r o l f o r t h e e f f e c t s o fs t a t u r e a n d a g e , a n a l l o m e t r i c m o d e l l i n g
a p p r o a c h w a s u s e d b a s e d o n t h e r e c o m m e n d a -t i o n s o f N e v i l l a n d H o l d e r . 2 6 T h i s w a s p r e c e d e d
b y P e a r s o n P r o d u c t Moment c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f -f i c i e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p
w h e r e k , c , d , a n d e a r e c o n s t a n t s , a n d E =e r r o r t e r m .
A g a i n , t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e r e w e r e s t a t i s t i c a ld i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s w i m m e r s , l a n d b a s e d a t h -l e t e s , a n d s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s , a o n e way a n a l y -s i s o f v a r i a n c e w a s p e r f o r m e d on t h e r e s u l t i n gp o w e r f u n c t i o n r a t i o s . 2 6 An i n d e p e n d e n t t t e s t
o n t h e p o w e r f u n c t i o n r a t i o s o f t h e m a l e a n d
f e m a l e n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s w i m m e r s a n d n o n -
n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s w i m m e r s w a s a l s o p e r -
f o r m e d . I n a d d i t i o n , a n i n d e p e n d e n t t t e s t w a s
p e r f o r m e d on t h e number o f y e a r s o f t r a i n i n gf o r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s w i m m e r s v n o n - n a t i o n a l
s t a n d a r d s w i m m e r s . F i n a l l y , a n a l y s i s o f c o v a r i -
a n c e w a s p e r f o r m e d o n t h e p o w e r f u n c t i o nr a t i o s o f t h e n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s w i m m e r s v
n o n - n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s w i m m e r s , w i t h y e a r s o f
t r a i n i n g u s e d a s t h e c o v a r i a t e . The l e v e l o f s t a -t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s s e t a t P < 0 . 0 5 .
R e s u l t s
T a bl es 1 - 3 p r e s e n t t h e s u b j e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .The r e s u l t s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s a r e s i m i l a rt o v a l u e s o b t a i n e d p r e v i o u s l y i n e i t h e rt h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n 2 4 2 5 3 0 - 3 2 ( f o r s e d e n t a r y
c o n t r o l s a n d l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s ) o r
s w i m m e r s . ' 3 1 1 1 8 2 2 3 1 3 5 A s e x p e c t e d , b o t h m a l e
a n d f e m a l e s w i m m e r s h a d s u p e r i o r p e a k
e x p i r a t o r y f l o w , FVC, a n d F E V 1 , c o m p a r e d
w i t h l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s a n d s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s( f i g s 1 a n d 2 ) , b u t t h e s w i m m e r s w e r e a l s ot a l l e r t h a n l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s a n d s e d e n t a r y
c o n t r o l s . I n a d d i t i o n , m a l e s w i m m e r s w e r e
o l d e r t h a n m a l e l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s a n d s e d e n -
t a r y c o n t r o l s ( t a b l e 1 ) .P e a r s o n P r o d u c t Moment c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i -
c i e n t s s h o w e d t h a t l n F E V , . 0 w a s r e l a t e d t o I ns t a t u r e i n m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s ( r = 0 . 9 3 a n d 0 . 8 6
r e s p e c t i v e l y , P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) . When c o m b i n e d w i t h
a g e a n d a g e 2 , t h e e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e ( R 2 ) i n
F E V , . 0 w a s 76 a n d 88 f o r f e m a l e s a n d
m a l e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . R e s u l t i n g p o w e r f u n c t i o n s ,
F E V L j s t a t u r e b , w e r e 0 . 6 4 ( 0 . 1 8 ) l i t r e s / m i 2 6 9 a n d
0 . 3 3 ( 0 . 2 4 ) l i t r e s / M 2 3 2 f o r m a l e s a n d f e m a l e sr e s p e c t i v e l y ( m e a n ( S E ) ) . T h e s e e x p o n e n t s a r ev e r y s i m i l a r t o v a l u e s p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d i n t h e
l i t e r a t u r e . 3 0 3 2 The s u b s e q u e n t o n e w a y a n a l y s i so f v a r i a n c e on t h e p o w e r f u n c t i o n s s h o w e d
s i g n i f i c a n t F v a l u e s ( P < 0 . 0 0 1 ) f o r b o t h m a l e s
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L u n g v o l u m e i n swimmers 3 4 1
r e a s o n f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o
g r o u p s i s a n i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e s p i r a -t o r y m u s c u l a t u r e , a f a c t o r t h a t c o n t r i b u t e s t o
f o r c e d m a n o e u v r e s , s i n c e t h e r e i s e vi d en c e o f a
p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n u p p e r - b o d y s t r e n -g t h a n d s w i m p e r f o r m a n c e . 3 8 F u r t h e r a n a l y s i so f t h e d a t a s h o w e d t h a t , when y e a r s o f t r a i n i n gw a s c o n t r o l l e d f o r b y a n a l y s i s o f
c o v a r i a n c e ,t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n F E V 1 . 0 b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p sw a s n o l o n g e r e v i d e n t . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e
number o f y e a r s o f s w i m m i n g t r a i n i n g a n d / o r
t h e e a r l i e r a g e a t w h i c h s w i m m i n g t r a i n i n gb e g i n s may h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g on
s u b s e q u e n t F E V , 1 0 a n d s w i m m i n g p e r f o r m -a n c e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e n o t
e v i d e n t b e t w e e n t h e f e m a l e n a t i o n a l a n d
n o n- n a t i o na l s t a nd a r d s w i m m e r s . I t i s knownt h a t i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n , m u s c l e s t r e n g t hi n i t s e l f e x p l a i n s t h e a p p a r e n t a c c e l e r a t i o n i nm a l e l u n g v o l u m e w i t h i n c r e a s e d s t a t u r e a f t e rp u b e r t y , 2 0 a n d i t may b e t h a t t h i s a l s o h o l d s t r u e
f o r m a l e a n d f e m a l e s w i m m e r s . The i n c l u s i o n
o f a m e a s u r e m e n t o f r e s p i r a t o r y m u s c l e
s t r e n g t h m i g h t t h e r e f o r e b e a u s e f u l a d d i t i o n t o
f u t u r e s t u d i e s o f l u n g v o l u m e o f e l i t e v
n o n - e l i t e m a l e a n d f e m a l e s w i m m i n g g r o u p s .
I n s u m m a r y , o u r r e s u l t s s u p p o r t p r e v i o u sw o r k t h a t s u g g e s t s t h a t s w i m m e r s h a v e s u p e -r i o r F E V 1 . 0 i n d e p e n d e n t o f a g e a n d s t a t u r e i nc o m p a r i s o n w i t h b o t h l a n d b a s e d a t h l e t e s a n d
s e d e n t a r y c o n t r o l s . I n a d d i t i o n , m a l e n a t i o n a l
s t a n d a r d s w i m m e r s w e r e s h o w n t o h a v e
s u p e r i o r FEV1 0 i n d e p e n d e n t o f a g e a n d s t a t u r e
i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h m a l e n o n - n a t i o n a l s t a n d -
a r d s w i m m e r s . When y e a r s o f t r a i n i n g w a s
c o n t r o l l e d f o r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n F E V 1 . 0 b e t w e e n
t h e s e t w o g r o u p s w a s no l o n g e r e v i d e n t . T h i ss u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y e a r s o f s w i m m i n g t r a i n i n ga n d / o r t h e e a r l i e r a g e a t w h i c h t r a i n i n g b e g i n s
may h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e on s u b s e q u e n t
F E V 1 . 0 a n d s w i m m i n g p e r f o r m a n c e . H o w e v e r ,u n t i l a d d i t i o n a l l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s a r e com-p l e t e d e x a m i n i n g s e l e c t i o n , r e s p i r a t o r y m u s c l e
s t r e n g t h , a n d t r a i n i n g p a t t e r n s i n c l u d i n gt r a i n i n g d u r a t i o n a n d i n t e n s i t y ) i n more d e t a i l ,t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f g e n e t i c endowmenta n d t r a i n i n g t o e n h a n c e d l u n g v o l u m e i ns w i m m e r s w i l l r e m a i n u n c l e a r .
Th e a u t h o r s e x p r e s s t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n t o M i c h a e l H u g h e s a n dP i r k k o K o r k i a
( U n i v e r s i t y o f L u t o n ) f o r t h e i r c r i t i c a l r e v i e w o ft h e m a n u s c r i p t .
1 A s t r a n d P O , E n g s t r o m L , E r i k s s o n BO, K a r l b e r g P ,N y l a n d e r I , S a l t i n B , e t a l . G i r l s w i m m e r s w i t h s p e c i a l r e f -e r e n c e t o r e s p i r a t o r y a n d c i r c u l a t o r y a d a p t a t i o n s a n dg y n a e c o l o g i c a l a n d p s y c h i a t r i c a s p e c t s . A c t a P a e d i a t r1 9 6 3 ; ( s u p p l 1 4 7 ) .
2 M a l i n a RM . P h y s i c a l g r o w t h a n d m a t u r i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o fy o u n g a t h l e t e s . I n : M a g i l l R , Ash T , S m a l l F , e d s . C h i l d r e ni n s p o r t . C h a m p a i g n , I l l i n o i s : Hum a n K i n e t i c s , 1 9 8 2 : 1 5 - 2 5 .
3 A n d r e w GN, B e c k l a k e MR, G u l e r i a J S , B a t e s D V . H e a r t a n dl u n g f u n c t i o n s i n s w i m m e r s a n d n on at hl e t es d u r in gg r o w t h . _ J A p p l P h y s i o l 1 9 7 2 ; 3 2 : 2 4 5 - 5 1 .
4 B l o o m f i e l d J , B l a n s b y B A , A c k l a n d TR, E l l i o t BC . Th e a n a -t o m i c a l a n d p h y s i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p r e - p u b e r t a la d o l e s c e n t s w i m m e r s , t e n n i s p l a y e r s a n d no n c o m p e t i t o r s .A u s t r r_ S c i Med S p o r t 1 9 8 5 ; 1 7 : 1 9 - 2 3 .
5 G o d f r e y R , B a i l e y D , R o b e r t s J , D a v i e s B , F u l l e r t o n F .C o m p a r i s o n o f l u n g f u nc t io n v a l u e s i n e l i t e m a l e , a g eg r o u p s w i m m e r s w i t h n o r m a l l y a c t i v e s c h o o l b o y s o f t h e
s a m e a g e . I n R i n g F J , e d . F i r s t B a t h S p o r t s M e d i c i n e C o n f e r -e n c e , 7 - 8 J u l y , 1 9 9 5 , B a t h : U ni ve rs it y o f B a t h , 1 9 9 5 ;1 4 9 - 1 5 1 .
6 M a g e l J R , A n d e r s e n K L . P u l m o n a r y d i f f u s i n g c a p a c i t y a n dc a r d i a c o u t p u t i n y o u n g t r a i n e d N o r we g i an s w i mm e r s a n du n t r a i n e d s u b j e c t s . Med S c i S p o r t s 1 9 6 9 ; 1 : 1 3 1 - 9 .
7 Newman F , S m a l l e y B F , Thomson ML . A c o m p a r i s o nb e t w e e n b o d y s i z e a n d l u n g f u n c t i o n o f s w i m m e r s a n d n o r -
m a l s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . J P h y s i o l ( L o n d ) 1 9 6 1 ; 1 5 6 : 9 - 1 O P .8 N e v i l l A , B a x t e r - J o n e s ADG, H e l m s P . M o d e l l i n g t h e d e v e l -
o p m e n t a l c h a n g e s i n l u n g f u n c t i o n on f e m a l e a t h l e t e s d u r -i n g p u b e r t y a n d a d o l e s c e n c e . I n B r e w e r J , e d . B r i t i s hA s s o c i a t i o n o f S p o r t a n d E x e r c i s e S c i e n c e s A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e ,L i l l e s h a l l , UK, 7 - 9 S e p t 1 9 9 6 , L e e d s : B r i t i s h A s s o c i a t i o n
o f S p o r t s a n d E x e r c i s e , 1 9 9 6 : 1 2 2 .
9 B a x t e r - J o n e s ADG, Helms P J . G r o w t h o f l u n g f u n c t i o n i nm a l e a t h l e t e s d u r in g p u b er t y a n d a d o l e s c e n c e . E u r R e s p i r j
1 9 9 3 ; 6 : 2 2 2 - 5 .1 0 C o r d a i n L , S t a g e r J . P u l m o n a r y s t r u c t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n in
s w i m m e r s . S p o r t s Med 1 9 8 8 ; 6 : 2 7 1 - 8 .1 1 C o r d a i n L , T u c k e r A , M o o n D , S t a g e r J . L u n g v o l u m e s a n d
m a x i m a l r e s p i r a t o r y p r e s s u r e s i n c o l l e g i a t e s w i m m e r s a n dr u n n e r s . R e s Q E x e r c S p o r t 1 9 9 0 ; 6 1 : 7 0 - 4 .
1 2 R e i l l y T , S e c h e r N , S n e l l P , W i l l i a m s C . I n : P h y s i o l o g y o fs p o r t s . L o n d o n : E & F N S p o n , 1 9 9 0 : 2 3 8 - 9 .
1 3 Dempsey J A , G l e d h i l l N , R e d d a n WG , F o r s t e r H V , HansonPG , C l a r e m o n t AD. P u l m o n a r y a d a p t a t i o n s t o e x e r c i s e :e f f e c t s o f e x e r c i s e t y p e a n d d u r a t i o n , c h r o n i c h y p o x i a a n dp h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g . An n N YAcad S c i 1 9 7 7 ; 3 0 1 : 2 4 3 - 6 1 .
1 4 Adams WC . E f f e c t o f a s e a s o n o f v a r s i t y t r a c k a n d f i e l d ons e l e c t e d a n t h r o p o m e t r i c , c i r c u l a t o r y a n d p u l m o n a r y f u n c -
t i o n p a r a m e t e r s . R e s Q 1 9 6 8 ; 3 9 : 5 - 1 6 .1 5 K o l l i a s J , B o i l e a u R A , B a r t l e t t HL , B u s k i r k E R . P u l m o n a r y
f u n c t i o n a n d p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g i n l e a n a n d o b e s es u b j e c t s . A r c h E n v i ro n H e al t h 1 9 7 2 ; 2 5 : 1 4 6 - 5 0 .
1 6 R eu s c hl e in P S , R e d d a n WG , B u r p e e J , Ge e J B L , R a n k i n J .E f f e c t o f p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g on t h e p u l m o n a r y d i f f u s i n gc a p a c i t y d u r i n g s u b m a x i m a l w o r k . J A p p l
P h y s i o l 1 9 6 8 ; 2 4 :1 5 2 - 8 .1 7 S i n n i n g WE , A d r i a n M J . C a r d i o - r e s p i r a t o r y c h a n g e s i n c o l -
l e g e w o m e n d u e t o a s e a s o n o f c o m p e t i t i v e b a s k e t b a l l . J fA p p l P h y s i o l 1 9 6 8 ; 2 5 : 7 2 0 - 4 .
1 8 C l a n t o n T , D i x o n G F , D r a k e J , Gadek J E . E f f e c t s o f s w i mt r a i n i n g on l u n g v o l u m e s a n d i n s p i r a t o r y m u s c l e c o n d i t i o n -
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S e r f a s s R C , T i p t o n C M, e d s . F i t n e s s a n d e x e r c i s e . C h i c a g o :A t h l e t i c I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 7 2 : 7 - 1 8 .
2 0 B a r - O r 0 , U n i t h a n V , I l l e s c a s C . P h y s i o l o g i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n si n a g e g r o u p s w i m m i n g . Med S p o r t S c i 1 9 9 4 ; 3 9 : 1 9 9 - 2 0 5 .
2 1 P e l t e n b u r g A L . G r o w t h a n d b i o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f f e m a l ea t h l e t e s . U t r e c h t : E l i n k w i j k , 1 9 8 4 .
2 2 Zinman R , G a u l t i e r C . M a x i m a l s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s a n d l u n gv o l u m e s i n y o u n g f e ma l e s w i m m er s . R e s p i r P h y s i o l 1 9 8 6 ; 6 4 :2 2 9 - 3 9 .
2 3 A n d e r s e n KL , R u t e n f r a n z J , S e l i g e r V , I l m a r i n e n J , B e r n d t I ,K y l i a n H , e t a l . Th e g r o w t h o f l u n g v o l u m e s a f f e c t e d b yp h y s i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e c a p a c i t y i n b o y s a n d g i r l s d u r i n g
c h i l d h o o d a n d a d o l e s c e n c e . E u r J f A p p l P h y s i o l 1 9 8 4 ; 5 2 :3 8 0 - 4 .
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2 5 B i e r s t e k e r MWA, B i e r s t e k e r P A . V i t a l c a p a c i t y i n t r a i n e da n d u n t r a i n e d h e a l t h y y o u n g a d u l t s i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . E u rJ A p p l P h y s i o l 1 9 8 5 ; 5 4 : 4 6 - 5 3 .
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2 7 S c h m id t - N i e l se n K . S c a l i n g ; w h y i s a n i m a l s i z e s o i m p o r t a n t ?C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 4 .
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2 9 E u r o p e a n Community f o r C o a l a n d S t e e l . S t a n d a r d i s a t i o no f l u n g f u n c t i o n . B u l l e t i n E u r o p e a n d e P h y s i o p a t h o l o g i eR e s p i r a t o i r e 1 9 8 3 ; 1 9 : 2 2 - 7 .
3 0 L y o n s HA, T a n n e r RW. T o t a l l u n g v o l u m e s a n d i t s s u b d i v i -s i o n s i n c h i l d r e n : n o r m a l s t a n d a r d s . J A p p l P h y s i o l 1 9 6 2 ; 1 7 :
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3 2 P o l g a r G , P r o m a d h a t V. P u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n t e s t i n g i nc h i l d r e n : t e c h n i q u e s a n d s t a n d a r d s . P h i l a d e l p h i a : WB S a u n -d e r s C o , 1 9 7 1 .
3 3 E r i ks so n B O , E n g s t r o m I , K a r l b e r g P , L u n d i n A , S a l t i n B ,T h o r e n C . Long t e r m e f f e c t o f p r e v i o u s swimming t r a i n i n gi n g i r l s : a 1 0 y e a r f ol l ow - up o f t h e G ir l S w i m m e r s . A c t aP a e d i a t r S c a n d 1 9 7 8 ; 6 7 : 2 8 5 - 9 2 .
3 4 G i b b o n s J A , C u n n i n g h a m D A, S ha w DB, Fynon R B . Th ee f f e c t o f s w i m m i n g t r a i n i n g o n s e l e c t e d a s p e c t s o fp u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n o f y o u n g g i r l s : a p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t .I n : T a y l o r AW, e d . T r a i n i n g : s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n .S p r i n g f i e l d , N J : T h o m a s , 1 9 7 2 .
3 5 V a c c a r o P , C l a r k e DH. C a r d i o r e s p i r a t o r y a l t e r a t i o n s i n 9 t o1 1 y e a r o l d c h i l d r e n f o l l o w i n g a s e a s o n o f c o m p e t i t i v es w i m m i n g . Med S c i S p o r t s 1 9 7 8 ; 1 O : 2 0 4 - 7 .
3 6 H a s h i m o t o A , C a r l s o n NA, D e r i o n T , L a n p h i e r EH ReddanWG . E f f e c t s o f p o s t u r e a n d i m m e r s i o n o n d i a p h r a g m a t i cf u n c t i o n d u r i n g f o r c e d r e s p i r a t o r y m a n o e u v r e s . F e d e r a t i o n
P r o c e e d i n g s 1 9 8 4 ; 4 3 : 5 3 1 .3 7 C o t es J E . L u n g f u n c t i o n : a s s e s s m e n t a n d a p p l i c a t i o n i nm e d i c i n e , 4 t h e d . O x f o r d : B l a c k w e l l S c i e n t i f i c , 1 9 7 9 : 3 5 2 - 3 .
3 8 S h a r p R , T r o u p J P , C o s t i l l DL. R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o w e ro u t p u t a n d s p r i n t f r e e s t y l e s w i m m i n g . Med S c i S p o r t s E x e r c1 9 8 2 ; 1 4 : 5 3 - 6
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doi: 10.1136/bjsm.31.4.337 1997 31: 337-341Br J Sports Med
M Doherty and L Dimitriou sedentary controls using allometric scaling.swimmers, land based athletes, andComparison of lung volume in Greek
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