Construindo Um Escudo Viking

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Construction of a VikingShield Anthony C. Lewis 2011

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The construction of a Viking Shield

Anthony C Lewis. BA (Hons) MCFM JP

The Construction of a "Viking" Shield by Anthony C Lewisis licensed under a Creative CommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.

This work may be reproduced if properly attributed, for non-commercial purposes where the samelicence is applied.

Preface

Regarding usage of the term Viking, the author of this article fully endorses thesentiments of David Wilson as expressed in his own work (Wilson, D. 2008) and will

apply them to this article.

Disregarding the ultimate philology of the word [Viking] and the history of its use

over the centuriesit is now in such everyday use by both specialists and non-specialists- however improperly - to describe the Scandinavians of the Viking Age, that it is almost

impossible to avoid its use in this generic sense. Although it is often appropriate andnecessary to use such terms as 'Scandinavian' or 'Norse it is often simpler and less

confusing to label something as 'Viking' rather than deal in scholastic circumlocution to

placate purists, however justified they may be in their arguments. I have tried therefore touse all three terms in a fashion appropriate to a general readership - the term 'Viking' is

too valuable and generally used to jettison now (Wilson, D. 2008)

Whilst every effort has been made to find the copyright authors of illustrations or workused in this article, the author apologises to any that he has been unable to trace or

contact and will insert an acknowledgment at their request.

Anthony C. Lewis


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The construction of a Viking Shield

Anthony C Lewis. BA (Hons) MCFM JP

Ever since I first read Caesars The Conquest of Gaul,1 and in particular Caesars

comments on his troops having being caught unawares by the Nervii:

Then as the Nervii were within range, he gave the signal for battle. On going tothe other side of the field to address the troops there, he found them already in action.

The soldiers were so pushed for time by the enemys eagerness to fight that they

could not even take the covers off their shields or put on their helmets

From this extract it can be inferred that the shields, in being covered, required some

protection from the elements. Why? Although this non-empirical evidence isanachronistic to this work in general, the problems in shield production would still havebeen encountered by the 9

th - 10

th century Scandinavians by virtue of the fact that

woodworking technology had not, at least to the modern mind, significantly progressed.

Therefore, having taken an exploratory and hermeneutical approach to the relevant

literature, this article aims to document each stage of the authors own empirical research

in reconstructing a Viking shield, using only materials available to 10th

centuryScandinavians where possible. This article is not intended as the last word on Viking

shield construction, but rather, by making empirical observations and analysis on various

aspects of its construction, it is intended to generate debate.

The timber used in the shield

With archaeological evidence suggesting that the diameter of Viking shields generally

varied between 80 and 90cms and of varying thicknesses, it was decided to construct a

shield 84cms in diameter and 1cm in thickness, flat and with the planks butted together;

these figures closely corresponding to the diameter of the Trelleborg shield, and thethickness of the Gokstad shields.

2 Although archaeological evidence indicates that a

variety of different types of wood were used in shield construction, as the Trelleborg and

Gokstad shields were made of softwood; fir and white pine3 respectively, it seemed

appropriate to use a softwood now.4

As the common term white pine was not specific, the Museum of Cultural histories,University of Oslo were contacted regarding the matter. The response was that the

Gokstad shields were, made of spruce and some of pine. The normal pine that it still

common in Scandinavia.5

1Caesar, J. The conquest of GaulTranslated by S.A. Handsford (1993)2Beatson, P.(2010). New Varangian Guard: The Viking Shield from Archaeology.3Nicholaysen, N. (1882) The Viking Ship discovered at Gokstad in Norway. Page 624Beatson, P.(2010). New Varangian Guard: The Viking Shield from Archaeology.5Nss, E.M. (2011) Education Officer. Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo.


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The Bedgebury National Pinetum was then contacted and it was established that,

excluding Norwegian pine (Pinus resinosa) which is native to North America, there areonly two common conifers native to Scandinavia. One was the Norway spruce (Picea

abies), also commonly known as Baltic white pine. The other was Scots pine (Pinus

sylvestris).6 It would appear therefore that the Gokstad shields were constructed using

Norway Spruce (Picea abies), and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris).

Pinus sylvestris is one of the most commonly used timbers in the UK construction

industry today. It is indigenous from Siberia to Scotland to the Mediterranean.7Its name

varies depending on the region where it is grown, for instance: Swedish redwood,

Siberian redwood, Finnish redwood, Norway fir, Baltic pine, et cetera.8 Pinus sylvestris

grown in the UK is commonly referred to as Scots pine, whereas the imported variety isreferred to as Redwood.

9 In the image, the red bark that gives the Scots pine its European

name can clearly be seen. Fortunately, I had access to Scandinavian redwood.

As Pinus Sylvestus is commonly used inconstruction industry, it has become an important

commercially grown softwood timber as part of

sustainable forestry management system innorthern Europe

10. Air-drying wood, which is the

process of leaving green wood exposed to the air

to remove the moisture naturally, is not efficientenough to meet the demands of the construction

industry for which artificial methods of wood

drying have been developed. The timber

purchased by the author having been kiln dried; aprocess where timber is stacked in kilns where the

temperature and humidity levels are controlled in

order that the timber is dryed quickly and evenly.

The reason for artificially drying wood in this

manner is that it provides the construction

industry with timber which has improved dimensional stability, strength and significantlyis lighter in weight.

11 This raises the interesting question of how much heavier the wood

in a Viking shield would have been; a question that will be addressed later in this work.

6Reynolds, C. (2011) The Bedgebury National Pinetum7Johnson, H. (1973). The International Book of Trees.8The Wood Explorer:. Pinus Sylvestris is also known as European Redwood, Archangel redwood, Baltic

fir, , Baltic redwood, Common pine, Danzig fir, Danzig pine, Finnish fir, Gefle fir, Memel fir, Norway fir,

Pine, Polish redwood, Red deal, Red pine, Redwood, Scotch pine, Scots fir, Soderhamn fir, Swedish fir,

Vanlig tall, Vanligtall, White sea fir, Yellow deal.9Davies, I. (2008). Centre for Timber Engineering (CTE): Scots Pine Timber quality in North Scotland10Noltfox. Northern European Database of Long-Term Forest Experiments.11BSW (2011).BSW Timber.


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Constructing the shield wooden core.

Having sourced the correct wood, the task of assembling the shield began. The redwood

was cut to 1 metre lengths (39 inches) and 145mm (5.5 inches) wide, and reduced to 1cm

thick. The longitudinal edges were then scored and each adjoining edge applied withpearl glue to ensure good adhesion. The planks were then placed flat against two stable

vertical uprights such as those of the garden shed (see image) and the adjoining edges

then firmly pressed against each other, ensuring that there was contact along their entirelength.

The planks were then gently secured to the uprights witha couple of tacks, which also ensured that constant even

pressure was applied to the join until the glue had set.

The structure was built up in this manner until it was 1

square metre in size. Note: that the uprights were coveredwith plastic to prevent the structure adhering to them.

As seen in the image, pearl glue is so called because it resembles tiny amber pearls. Pearl

glue, is the modern term in the UK for what is otherwise known as carpenters glue, hideglue or animal glue. It is an extremely strong glue, but is not, however, especially

resistant to damp or moisture.12

Being made from the boiled down remains of animals it

is one of the oldest glues known to man.13

However, Theophilus, who in the first half of the 12th

century, wrote De Diversis Artibus, provides us with arecipe for cheese glue, which with kind permission of

Dover publications is reproduced below. Although

anachronistic to the period subject of this work, it is

arguably not too far removed and has been included inthis work because as Theophilus had an apparently tried

and tested recipe at this time, suggests that the use of

cheese glue had been in use for some considerable time.14

Although cheese glue, a casein/protein based glue, is impervious when cured, whereas

hide glue, a colloid/protein based glue is not, evidence suggests that depending upon howthey are applied there is not a great deal of difference in the strength of the bond. Also,

whilst colloid/protein based glues are susceptible to moist damp conditions,

casein/protein based glues under similar conditions are subject to attack by

microorganisms.15

That said it is argued, based on no empirical evidence, that the cheeseglue would possibly have the greater longevity.

12Savage, D. (2010) Pearl Glue.13Ibid.14Theophilus On Divers Arts: the foremost medieval treatise on painting, glassmaking, and metalwork.

As translated by Hawthorne J.G. and Smith C.S.15Helm-Clark, C.(2007)Medieval Glues Up to 1600 CE.


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Chapter 17. Panels for Altars and Doors;

and Cheese Glue

The individual pieces for altar and door panels are first carefully fitted together with theshaping tool that is used by coopers and vat-makers. Then they should be stuck together withcheese glue, which is made in this way. Cut soft cheese into small pieces and wash it withy hotwater in a mortar with a pestle, repeatedly pouring water over it until it comes out clear. Thinthe cheese by hand and put it into cold water until it becomes hard. Then it should be rubbedinto very small pieces on a smooth wooden board with another piece of wood, and put backinto the mortar and pounded carefully with the pestle, and water mixed with quicklime shouldbe added until it becomes as thick as lees. When panels have been glued together with this

glue, they stick together so well when they are dry that they cannot be separated by dampnessor by heat. Afterwards they should be smoothed with a planning tool [i.e., a drawknife] whichis curved and sharp on the inside and has two handles so that it can be drawn with both hands.Panels, doors, and shields are shaved with this until they become completely smooth. Then thepanels should be covered with the raw hide of a horse or an ass or a cow which should havebeen soaked in water. As soon as the hairs have been scraped off, a little of the water shouldbe wrung out and the hide while still damp laid on top of the panel with cheese glue.16

For those interested in reproducing cheese glue, please refer to C. M. Helm-Clark, Ph.D.

excellent work on Medieval Glues up to 1600 CE.

In respect of the use of hide glue in the construction of the shield it therefore represents a

significant weakness in the shield because it is vulnerable to moisture and damp

conditions. According to the sagas, shields were not expected to last long in battle andwould frequently be exchanged for a new one,

17but the question is, how long they were

expected to last before they were used in battle. A shield will be of little use in battle if it

has not withstood the elements. This raises an interesting question which this work willreturn to later.

Having left the completed structure in situ for 24 hours, a circle of 85cm (34 inches)diameter was drawn onto the wood before carefully removing the structure from the

uprights. After ensuring that the structure was free to move, it was carefully lifted up onto

the work bench. There was no evidence of poor adhesion, in fact quite the opposite as the

motion of manoeuvring the fragile planks towards the work bench was enough to affect itin such a way as to make it make it gently sway back and forth. From this experience it

was evident that the structure had so little rigidity that some form of substantial

reinforcement was necessary. Using a jigsaw, the excess wood was carefully removed,

16Theophilus On Divers Arts: the foremost medieval treatise on painting, glassmaking, and metalwork.

as translated by Hawthorne J.G. and Smith C.S. Reproduced with kind permission of Dover Publications.17Nicholaysen, N. (1882) The Viking Ship discovered at Gokstad in Norway. Page 63


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including the centre hole, making the structure lighter and

easier to handle. At this point the shield was left on thework bench for a few hours. (See image)

It is appropriate at this juncture to return to the question of

the weight of the shield.

Pinus Sylvestris, when green, has a moisture content of

about 70%. This equates to a mean density of approximately 800kg/m.18

As the moisture content of timber dries below 25-30%, its mechanical properties usually

increase.19

In the UK it is generally considered that air-drying can reduce the moisturecontent of timber to an average of 20 %.

20

In the UK, 25mm (1 inch) thick timber will usually take about a year to air dry. However,based on figures derived from air drying timber in the Chilterns, 25mm (1 inch) thickPinus Sylvestris that is stacked to be air dried in April can reach 20 % moisture content

by July/August that same year, if the summer months are warm and dry. If 50mm (2 inch)

thick, it can reach a similar moisture content by early October that same year.21

In the kiln drying, process which can last for a period of 7 to 8 months, the moisture

content is reduced even further to around 12%, which equates to a mean density of520kg/m.

22So it can be said that:

Green wood at 70% moisture content = 800kg/m 100 = 8.00kg/ m or 17.60lbs/m.

Air dried wood at 20% moisture content = 559kg/m 100 = 5.59kg/ m or 12.29lbs/mKiln dried wood at 12% moisture content = 520kg/m 100 = 5.20kg/ m or 11.44lbs/m.

However, as wood is hygroscopic, in that as the equilibrium moisture content issusceptible to changes in the local humidity and temperature, these figures could vary

slightly.23

If the diameter of the shield is 84cms, the area of shield = Pi multiplied by r, or 3.142 X1764cm (which is radius of 42cm squared) which = shield surface area of 5,542.5cm.

Rounded up to (5,543cm).

1 m = 10,000 cm. If shield has a surface area of 5,543cm, which (rounding down)equates to 55% of m. From these figures it can be calculated that:

18Davies, I.(2008). Centre for Timber Engineering (CTE): Scots Pine Timber quality in North Scotland.19Furness, M. Et al.Air drying of timber information pack.20Ibid.21Furness, M. Et al.Air drying of timber Information Pack22Davies, I. (2008). Centre for Timber Engineering (CTE): Scots Pine Timber quality in North Scotland23Swell, R. (2011).Timbercut 4U


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Shield of green Pinus sylvestris at 70% moisture content equals 55% of 17.60lbs/m

which equates to 9.68 lbs (9.7lbs) or (4.4Kg)

Shield of air dried Pinus sylvestris at 20% moisture content equals 55% of 12.29lbs/m

which equates to 6.7595lb (6.76lbs) or (3.07Kg)

Shield of kiln dried Pinus sylvestris at 12% moisture content equals 55% of 11.44lbs/m,

which equates to 6.292lbs (6.3lbs) or (2.8Kg). Actual weight of shield, with hole

removed for the boss = 6.1 lbs (2.7Kg)

It is therefore argued that if a shield of this size had been made from air dried Pinussylvestris during the 10

thcentury, the weight of the wooden core of the shield would be

approximately 6.75lbs (3.07Kg).

Because of the anisotropic nature of wood, in that wood has different properties indifferent directions,

24and because of moisture and temperature equilibration, significant

tangential dimensional change had occurred in the structure; the result being a collective

cup warp, resulting in the structure arching laterally.25

This was attributed directly tohaving used planks that had been plain or flat-sawn; the common form of cutting timber

as it is cost effective in terms of production. The error was not realised until much later

into the project.

Also as the flat-cut planks had been reduced to 10mm from 24mm thickness, the strength

and dynamics of their new state would arguably have changed and they should thereforehave been allowed to acclimatise to the ambient atmosphere to observe if the wood

underwent any dimensional change. Thereby, those planks that did experiencedimensional change could have been discarded. However, it is precisely because of theanisotropic nature of wood, that the timber used should have been quarter-cut not plain or

flat-cut.

Whilst there is almost no shrinkage along the timbers

longitude or grain, there is some shrinkage radially

(perpendicular to the growth rings), though a greater

degree of shrinkage tangentially (along the curvatureof the growth rings).

26Consequently, true quarter-cut

timber can be up to 50%27

more stable because the

radial pattern is symmetrical on both faces and so willshrink evenly.

28

24Woodford, C. (2011).Explain that stuff.25Wengert E.M. and Meyer, D. (1993) In Woodweb. 2001. Warp in Drying: Causes and cures for

warpage when drying lumber.26Wandel, M. (2011).Measuring seasonal wood shrinkage.27BC Hardwood. (2011)BC Hardwood Floor Co Ltd. (Image of plain and quarter sawn timber.)28Wengert E.M. and Meyer, D. (1993) In Woodweb (2001) Warp in Drying: Causes and cures for

warpage when drying lumber.


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Interestingly, extant evidence such as the Mstermyr tools and the Oseberg and Gokstad

ships suggest that during the period subject of this work, a plank that was essentiallyquarter-cut was achieved by splitting or rivening the log along its length or grain with

an axe and wedges, and then continuing to split or riven off long thin wedges radially

from which planks could be crafted.29

Today quarter-cut or quarter-sawn timber is

required where dimensional stability isessential, as in the furniture industry. This is

reflected in the fact that where such cuts are

required the log is cut to provide maximum

yield of quarter-sawn timber. (See image.Reproduced with kind permission of Philip

Richardson.30

)

A good quality black and white photograph of one of the Gokstad shields reproduced inthe book Saxon, Viking and Norman of the Osprey Men-at-arms series,

31 shows the

grain of the timber and that it was clearly quarter cut.

Application of Linen to the shield

At this stage, of shield construction, to impart the structure with enough strength andrigidity to make it functional for the purpose it was design for, would, it is argued, require

the structure to be faced on one side or both with either linen, rawhide, leather or acombination of these.

In respect of linen, although there are some modern sources that suggest that linen could

have been used to face Anglo-Saxon / Viking shields, the author at the time of writing

this article, having sought assistance from the Museum of Cultural History, University of

Oslo32

is unable to find any hard evidence that linen was ever or actually used in thiscontext. That does not mean, however that it never was, and as the purpose of this

29Hadingham, E. (2000)Nova beta: Secrets of Viking ships.30Richardson, P. (2001).Fine Furniture & Cabinet makerworking with the grain of nature31Wise, T. & Embleton, G.A. (1986) Saxon Viking and Norman. P. 2732Nss, E.M. (2011) Education Officer. Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo.


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exercise is to learn about the construction it was decided to face both sides of the shield

with linen canvas.

For ease of explanation, the shield at this juncture will be

(Stage 1), (See stages below) and the convex side, sideA.

In order to compensate for the dimensional change thathad caused the arching, the first application of linen

canvas would be applied to Side A. The reason being that

as the linen shrank it should compensate for the inherenttendency in the wood to change dimensionally. Before

applying the linen, the entire surface of sides A and B,

were scored and both sides of the periphery of the shield

from 2 inch (50 mm) in, and around its entirecircumference was bevelled so that the thickness at the

edge of the shield was reduced to about 78 mm.

Now the hide glue was made ready and, using a paint brush, applied to side A making

sure that there were no resinous areas that would inhibit adhesion. That done, hide glue

was then applied in the same manner to that side of the linen canvas that would rest nextto the wood.

Although the shield had undergone dimensional change, once pressed down flat with

hand pressure it remained flat long enough to allow the linen canvas to be smoothed, not

stretched, over the surface of side A, with the warp of the fabric lying diagonally to thelongitude of the planks. This was because when shrinkage occurred there would be aneven and lateral pull exerted.

Because it was anticipated that the whole structure could buckle or come apart with thewarm wet glue having been applied, and in the absence of any better idea, it was decided

that the most expedient method to prevent the structure from experiencing dimensional

change as the glue was drying, was for the shield to be pinned down to the woodenworkbench using a few small 18 gauge / 1 inch (25mm) nails; the linen canvas being

secured about inch (12mm) in from the edge with just drawing pins. I then applied

more hide glue to the top surface of the linen to ensure that

the linen was completely impregnated with hide glue toensure good adhesion.

It is acknowledged that this is not the best way to hold the

shield down, some weight could have been used, but after

some deliberation it was decided to follow the route taken,as the surface would at least be able to dry evenly.

The following day the small nails holding the shield flat were removed and the excesscanvas linen trimmed from around the shield. The shield was left for another day because


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although the glue was dry, because of the

amount of glue applied it may not necessarily

have cured. The next day it was found that theshield had experienced considerable dimensional

change, as the shrinkage of the linen canvas had

proved so strong that the planks were brought upso that side A was now concave. (Stage 2)

It was clear that I would need to apply another

piece of linen in the same manner to side B to

compensate for the shrinkage of the linen canvason side A. This was done in the same manner

as for side A.(Stage 3)

When the linen on side Bwas dry, it becameapparent that the application of linen canvas on

each side of the shield had effectively cancelled

each other out, and the inherent tendency in the wood to undergo dimensional changedominated the structure with side A now returning to the convex. (Stage 4)

What was significant, however, was that the structure was now far more robust, and theeffort required to push the shield was greater. Would one be prepared to go into a life or

death or struggle with the shield as it was? Unlikely, so it was decided appropriate to

apply a layer of rawhide to each side.

Application of the rawhide to the shield

The rawhide parchment used in this project was de-limed

but not tanned. Although the de-liming process will

stabilise the material, it only becomes leather when it hasundergone the full tanning process

33 which converts the

rawhide parchment to a more durable material by

chemically altering the structure of collagen fibres that liejust beneath the outer skin.

34

Having acquired two hides of de-limed parchment (rawhide) it was found that theshoulders of the rawhide proved tougher to cut than the actual body. It was not clear if

this was to do with the nature of the skin or the curing and stretching process.

Having determined how much would be needed to cover side 'A' of the shield, allowing

for a 2 inch (50mm) overlap, it was then cut from the hide and soaked in warm water for

about 15 minutes. Just long enough for it to become supple and workable. There was still

some excess fat remaining on this rawhide, so it was scraped away to ensure goodadhesion.

33Archer, R (2012) Marcus Gear Limited. Leather /skins retailer.34Waterer, J.W. (1981)Leather and the Warrior ( Written prior to 1977)


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With the excess water removed, first by rolling up the rawhide to remove most of the

water then the surfaces wiped with a dry cloth, the rawhide was then laid flat on the workbench, and a liberal amount of hide glue applied to that side of the skin (the inside of the

skin) that would be placed against side A.

Having applied the hide glue to the rawhide, the glue was then rubbed into the skin

vigorously for a several minutes, to try and ensure that the skin was impregnated with

hide glue and had largely displaced the water in which it had been soaking. That this hasbeen achieved should become apparent when the rawhide is not so much damp, but

sticky.

Keeping the rawhide flat, it was put to one side and the shield quickly placed on the work

bench, and the linen surface of side A also given an application of hide glue. The

rawhide impregnated with hide glue was thenplaced on to side A. (Stage 5)

The rawhide expands naturally when wet, so when it was impregnated with hide glue,

andplaced on side A of the shield, there was no need to stretch it, only to smooth it flatwith the hands away from the centre towards the edge of the shield. This also served to

force out any air pockets prior to securing it in place. Some air pockets were persistent

and only disappeared as the rawhide dried.

Note.A brush was not adequate for this task as the smoothing process also required somedownward pressure to ensure that the rawhide was in contact with the linen.

When smoothing the rawhide flat it proved necessary to place some weights on the shield

to keep the convex structure flat as it was not now appropriate to use small 18 gauge / 1inch (25mm) nails as the rawhide would be the face of the shield. This was to some

degree problematic because aside from the need to keep the shield flat, where the weights

rested on the rawhide would inevitably prevent that area from drying out.

A compromise was reached by placing two pieces of

flat wood, about 4 Sq inches (100 Sq mm) adjacent to andeither side of the hole in the centre, and a third piece of flat

wood, about 4 Sq inches (100 mm) wide and 12 inches

(300 mm) long, spanning the gap and resting on the twopieces of wood. On top of the flat piece of wood was then

placed a heavy weight which kept the shield flat. Thismethod minimised the surface area of the rawhide that was

not open to the air and could be moved periodically by moving the weight around thecentre allowing the surface to dry without any problems.

When satisfied that everything had been done that could be done to smooth the rawhideflat and that there was good adhesion to the linen, the process of pinning the rawhide to

the shield began.


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Again using ordinary drawing pins, and working around the shield, locating them very

near the edge, was enough to secure the rawhide in place for it to dry under tension.Allowing it to dry without tension could mean it shrivelling out of shape. The weights

being periodically moved to allow the rawhide that had been under the weights to

breathe.

Where the moisture laden rawhide covered the hole in the centre of the shield, it sagged

down creating a small depression. However, as the shield dried out this depression grewshallower and eventually disappeared when the rawhide was dry and became as taut as a

drum. To get the rawhide this dry took almost three days, by which time the weights had

been removed and the enormous pull exerted by the rawhide had, as with the linen,caused dimensional change in that the planks had been pulled up laterally in relation to

the longitudinal join of the planks, so that side A was concaveagain (Stage 6). In terms

of adhesion the weak areas were on certain sections of the periphery where there

probably had not been enough glue or contact for adhesion, but it was nothing that couldnot be resolved later.

Again as with the linen, in order to compensate for the force exerted by the rawhide onside A, itwas necessary to apply rawhide to side B (Stage 7). This was done in the

same manner as above and the force exerted by the rawhide on side B effectively

cancelled each other out, and the inherent tendency in the wood to undergo dimensionalchange not only dominated the structure again, but was amplified in that with side Areturning to the convex, (Stage 8.) the amount of effort now required to force the shield

flat increased considerably.

In determining how best to glue the rawhide at the periphery and ensure that it held, theauthor suddenly realised that a significant aspect of shield construction had been

overlooked. Archaeological evidence suggests that the edges of shields were reinforced insome way.

35On the Gokstad shields there are a series of small holes 2 cm in from the

edge and at intervals of 3.5 cm around the periphery36

. Their presence suggests that the

edge of the shields had, in some way, been reinforced and held in place possibly bystitching, but not necessarily so. Although it would appear that the wooden planks of the

Gokstad shields were painted and not faced with any other material,37

it has nevertheless

become apparent from constructing this shield that if the holes had been made during thefirst stage of the construction that they would have been of

significant assistance.

Because using pegs could easily have been made from wood,

the linen could have been secured in place whilst it was drying,

similarly the rawhide, its translucent quality assisting in

finding the holes (See image). Alternatively, the holes couldhave facilitated the binding of both sides of the rawhide

35Dickinson, T. and Hrke, H. (1992)Early Anglo-Saxon shields.36Beatson, P. (2010). New Varangian Guard: The Viking Shield from Archaeology.37Nss, E.M. (2011) Education Officer. Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo.


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securely to the periphery until the glue had dried (Top image);

Also the attachment of the edge reinforcement (Middle image).The author cheated and used split bamboo sticks, which though

historically inappropriate, proved to be the most cost effective

and practical approach.

Reinforcement of the periphery.

In deciding how best to reinforce the edge of the shield with

rawhide, it was decided to attach slightly stretched andoverlapping rectangles of rawhide (55mm x 80mm) around the

entire periphery in a scale like manner. The idea is an

extension of the concept of butting metal clamps that appear to

have formed a continuous edge around the periphery of ashield, subject of a grave find (Bj736) in Birka, Sweden. 38

This process required 72 rectangles, cut to 55mm x 90mm, and working with about 10 ata time they were soaked in warm water until pliable. Then, having removed the excess

water with a dry cloth, they were placed one at a time across the edge of the shield,

folded/stretched slightly down on either side, overlapping the peripheral holes and theprevious rectangle. Holes were then made where appropriate in relation to the peripheral

holes, using a leather punch. The rectangles were then held in place under tension until

dry to minimise dimensional change.

However, from the outset, some of the longitudinal edges of the rectangles did experience

dimensional change in that they took on a dog earedappearance. This was largely overcome by temporarily saddle

stitching rectangles, now cut to 55mm x 90mm, into place

rather than using split bamboo sticks. When dry the rectangleswere unstitched, any effected areas trimmed, where possible,

and saddle sewn back into place using 3mm waxed natural

linen thread. The entire edge of the shield was reinforced in

this manner until complete and the linen thread tied off.

Attachment of the handle and boss

All that remained now was for the boss and the handle to be attached. However, as it nowrequired a force of 140lbs+ to make the shield lie flat, it soon became apparent that

applying a simple pine handle to keep the shield flat proved unsatisfactory. As this was

reconstructive / experimental archaeology, and having taken advice from my friend Dr

Andrew Thompson - that as the Anglo-Saxon word Bohscyld, suggests the possible

38Beatson, P. (2010). New Varangian Guard: The Viking Shield from Archaeology.


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existence of bow or curved-shields it was decided that it was appropriate to view the

shield as such.39

/40

Consequently, a pine handle shaped to the curvature of the

shield was prepared. This incorporated the attachment of twobrass D-rings at each end of the handle for the attachment of the

carrying strap or guige. The handle was then secured in place

using iron nails with tapering square tangs which were clenchedand hammered flush with the wood; similarly with the boss.

In respect of the boss, a relatively cheap, shiny, machine made boss was purchased andthen aged. This was achieved by placing the boss onto an open fire until red hot and then

withdrawing it and allowing it to cool down naturally; this had the effect of blueing the

steel. Then using a small ball-peen hammer, hammered the boss which was supported

underneath by a larger ball-peen hammer, held firm in a vice; this process significantlyremoved any evidence that the boss had been produced on a

lathe and greatly improved its aesethic appearance. Six holes

were drilled onto the boss flange to allow attachment to theshield. The shield now weighed 12.5lbs (5.7Kgs).

All that was left to do now was to decide how best to treat therawhide to protect it from the elements. It was decided to use

something that would replace the oils in the rawhide and repel

moisture. Coating the shield with beeswax was one possibility considered, as was amixture of beeswax and linseed oil, both of which 10

th Scandinavians apparently had

access to, the latter being a by-product of flax cultivation41/42. Eventually it was decidedto use a currying compound/leather food that is made to a 200 year old recipe using onlynatural tallow, oils and waxes. This was rubbed into the rawhide which darkened as it

absorbed the oil and enhanced the rawhides translucent quality.

39Whitlock, D. (1930)Anglo-Saxon Wills.[172n].40Earle, J. (Ed.)(1888)Land Charters and other Saxonic Documents. 1888(3) [226'].41Vinje J.G. (2001)Nordic Way: Vikings in the East: Remarkable eyewitness accounts.42Priest-Dorman, C. (1999)Archaeological Finds of Ninth- and Tenth-Century Viking Foodstuffs.


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Conclusion.

With the shield finished the bow was slight and did not in any way affect its centre o f

gravity or functionality, and was considered fit for purpose.

Not using quarter cut timber was, however, an unfortunate

oversight. It can be argued that if the error had not been madethen the historical truth of the use of quarter cut timber may

not have been realised. In that respect undertaking the project

proved worthwhile.

The adhesive qualities of the hide glue proved far better than

anticipated, and to date has not showed any signs of losing its

adhesive properties. Then again it has not been exposed to significantly damp or moistconditions for any considerable period of time. It is argued that should the shield have

been subject to such conditions and neglected then it would show signs of deterioration,

regardless of whether rawhide or leather was used to face the shield. Just as today it wasprobably the case that one had to keep clean and maintain his equipment.

The use of linen in the construction of the shield did not, it is argued, significantly

contribute anything to the structure. Actually, in sample tests made before constructing

the shield, it was found that the rawhide adhered far better to the wood than it did to thelinen. Thus it is also argued that if the linen had been omitted from the construction that

the bond between the rawhide and the wooden core would have been even greater.

However, where the linen may have been of value if used, is if the fabric weave was

capable of restricting the penetration of an arrow as it enters the face of the shield. Thereis a possible precedent for this in the form of a 9

thcentury shield found in a peat bog at

Tira, in Latvia. This shield, faced front and back with leather was padded with pressed

grass, which would certainly dampened to some degree the penetrating capability of anarrow.

43

To establish whether this may be the so, it is planned to make two test pieces, one withand without linen and to determine whether there is any difference in penetration.

The rawhide proved to be a wonderful material to work with, however, Waterer arguesthat the mouldability of a particular kind of leather is amongst its most important

attributes. This arises from the nature of unique micro-fibrillar structure in the form in

which it is preserved in any vegetable tanned leather44

So while rawhide does have its uses, in an agrarian society heavily dependent and attuned

to its environment, tanned leather would appear to have been the preferred choice largelybecause of its versatility and superior durability against the elements.

43Beatson, P. (2010). New Varangian Guard: The Viking Shield from Archaeology.From Drevnie shchity

na territorii Latviiskoe SSR'. Sovietskaia Arkheologii 1961(1), p. 216-224.44Ibid.


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If there is one lesson learnt that is felt to have been a significant, it is the placement of

holes around the periphery of the shield at an early stage of the shield construction, in thisinstance at stage 1. They would, it is argued, have significantly assisted in placing the

leather face in place and any periphery reinforcement.

From the lessons learnt, the next shield project will be to make a shield from quarter-cut

Pinus sylvestris, but this time facing the shield with cuir buoilli and to see if the

peripheral holes are as helpful as has been suggested.

Anthony C. Lewis


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Construindo Um Escudo Viking

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