GatUm m:UelKul nig GIuy u:g · GatUm mUelK ul n ig Guyu g 2-4 2>1 eGLicRtug enA kúg Tsv tSqña M...

CMB UkTI2

2-1

GGaattUUmm mm:: UU eellKKuull nniiggGGII uuyyuu ::gg ( A t o m s M o l e c u l e s a n d I o n s )

taM gBIs m½ ybur aNm k em :øH E dlm nusS e yIg) anK i tBi car NaBIF mµC at irb s ;r Ub F at u. K Mn it rIkc Mer Inrb s ; ey Ig sþ IBI TMr g;é nrUb F a tu) a ncab ; epþIm e cj C a rUb ra genA ed Im s tv tS T I19C a mYynw gR Tws þ I G atUm rb s ;ela k DALTON. \ L ÚvenH e yIg dw gfaR K b ;rUb F a tu Ta MgG s ;K Wb gáeL IgB IG a tUm m :UelK ul n igGI uy :ug. R K b ;E pñ kénK ImI TaM gG s ;T ak; Tge TA nwgF a tub gá Ta MgG s ;e nH . 1 RTwsþIGatUm enA s tv tS TI5m unR K wsþs k ra C TsS nvi TUC nC a tiR ki cmña k;e Q µaH Democritus ) anb Ba¢a k ; nUvk areC O C ak ;rb s ;K a t; fa R K b ;rUb F atu Ta MgG s ;pSM eL Ig BIPaK l¥ it tU cbMpu tminG acE c k) an E d l K at;[ eQ µ aH faG a tUm . eT aH bIC aK Mni trb s ;e lak Democritus minR tU v) anm n u sS C aeR cInk ñúg s m½yk alrb s ;K a t; TT Yl y kk¾e da y k¾ vam anG tß iPaB t am viFIN amY yE dre nA kñú gs m½ yen aH E dr. Psþút ag tam k arBi es aF én k arR s avR C avv iTü as aR sþs m½ ymun² ) an pþl ;ka rK aMR T cMeB aH s BaØa Nén G atUm eh Iy k¾) an elI keL I gnUvn iym n ½y énF a tun igs m as F at u [ m anl kçN³ TMe nI b b nþicmþg² . K WenA qñaM 1808 E dlGñkv iTü a s aR sþnigC aR K Ub eR go nC nC a tiG g; eK øs eQ µaH John Dalton ) aneG a y niym n ½yR twm R tU vC ak ;lak ; GMBIF at ub gá tUcb Mpu tén rUb F a tuE dle yI gehA fa G a tUm . karg ar rb s ; Dalton ) an kMN t;k ar cab ;ep þIm é ny uK s m½yT Men Ib énK ImIv iTü a. s mµtikm µ BIF mµC at irb s ;r Ub F at uE dlR tUv) a nBwgE p ¥ke da yR Twsþ Irb s ; Dalton en aH G acR t U v) ans eg çb dUc x ageR kam ³

1 > F atuR t Uv) a npSMeL I gBIP aK l¥i tt Uc² bMpu tehA fa G a t UmG a t UmG a t UmG a t Um . RK b ;G atUm énF at umYyK WdU cK ña eda yvam anm : as dU cK ña m a D dUcK ñ a nig lkç N³K ImI dUcK ñ a. G atUm énF at umYy K W vax us BI G atUm é nF at umY yeTo t .

2> s m as F atuR tUv) a nb gáeL I g BIG at Um énF a tue lIs BIm Yy. kñúgs m as F at uNa k¾e da y pleFo b éncMn YnG a tUm énF a tuBI r E dlm anenA k ñúgs m as F atue naH K WC ae lx K t; b ¤C a R b PaK gay.

GatUm m :UelK ul n ig GIuy u :g

2-2

3> R b tikmµK ImI Tak ;T gE teTA n wg karp þac ; b nSM nigk ar tMe ro b G atUm eL I gvij vam inb :H Ba l ; dl;k arb eg áI tb¤k arbMp øaj rb s ;G at Um Ta Mgen aH eT.

rUb1 K WC akar tagK M nUs bMR bY j éns mµt ikmµB Ird MbUg.

G at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t u X G at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t u Y s m as F a t ué nF a tus m as F a t ué nF a tus m as F a t ué nF a tus m as F a t ué nF a tu X n ig F at un ig F at un ig F at un ig F at u Y

¬ k ¦¬ k ¦¬ k ¦¬ k ¦ ¬ x ¦¬ x ¦¬ x ¦¬ x ¦ r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 1 1 1 1 kkkk >>>> ed a ye ya ge TA t am R Tws þIG a t Um rb sed a ye ya ge TA t am R Tws þIG a t Um rb sed a ye ya ge TA t am R Tws þIG a t Um rb sed a ye ya ge TA t am R Tws þIG a t Um rb s ;; ;; e la ke la ke la ke la k Dalton G a tUm énF at ud Uc K ña m a nl kçNG a tUm énF at ud Uc K ña m a nl kçNG a tUm énF at ud Uc K ña m a nl kçNG a tUm énF at ud Uc K ña m a nl kçN ³ ³ ³ ³ d Uc K ña bd Uc K ña bd Uc K ña bd Uc K ña b :: :: uE n þG at Um é nF a t umYy K Wx us B IG a t Um é nF a t umYy eT o tuE n þG at Um é nF a t umYy K Wx us B IG a t Um é nF a t umYy eT o tuE n þG at Um é nF a t umYy K Wx us B IG a t Um é nF a t umYy eT o tuE n þG at Um é nF a t umYy K Wx us B IG a t Um é nF a t umYy eT o t . . . . xxxx > > > > s m as F a t uE dlb eg áIt eL Ig B I s m as F a t uE dlb eg áIt eL Ig B I s m as F a t uE dlb eg áIt eL Ig B I s m as F a t uE dlb eg áIt eL Ig B I G at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t uG at Um é nF a t u X nignignignigY. . . . e nA k ñúg k rN Ie nHe nA k ñúg k rN Ie nHe nA k ñúg k rN Ie nHe nA k ñúg k rN Ie nH pleFo b énG a tUm rb spleFo b énG a tUm rb spleFo b énG a tUm rb spleFo b énG a tUm rb s ;; ;; F a t uF a t uF a t uF a t u X eFo b C amYy G at Um eFo b C amYy G at Um eFo b C amYy G at Um eFo b C amYy G at Um é nF a t ué nF a t ué nF a t ué nF a t u YK W K W K W K W 2:1....

b BaØt þirb s ;ela k Dalton cMeBaH G a tUm m a nlkç N³l ¥i t l¥n;n igc, as ;C a gR Twsþ Irb s ;e lak

Democritus. s mµ ti kmµT I mYyb Ba ¢ak ;faG at Um énF a tumY ym anl kç N³x us K ñaB IG a tU m énF at uepS g eTo t. e lak Dalton mi ncg;B N’n aBI TM rg; rWs m as P a BénG a tUm eL I y K µa nK Mni t GVIed Im ,IBnü l ; faG a tUm m an rag dU cGVIe naH eT b :uE nþK at ;Bi tC ad wgf a l kçN³x us K ñ aE dlb gð aj e da yF at unIm Yy² dUcC aGI uR dUE s nn igGu ksIuE s n G acR tUv) aneK Bnü l;) an e da yka rs nµ tf aG a tUm GIuR d UE s nTaM gG s ; mindU cG at Um rb s ;Gu ksIuE s n eT. s mµtikm µTI2) anes ñIeL Ig fa edIm , Ib egá It) a ns m as F atum YyB itR ) a kd ey Igmi nE m n R tUvk arE tG a tUm énF a tum anR b ePTR twm R t Uvb :u eNÑ aH eT b :uE nþe yI gR tUv kar cMn YnC ak;l ak; énG a tUm TaM genaH pgE d r. K M ni tenH K W C akarBR g Ikc, ab ;E dle) aH Bu m <pS ay enA qña M 1799 e da ye lak Joseph

Proust C aK ImIvi TUC nC a ti) a raMg . cccc ,,,, abababab ;; ;; s m am aR tk MNts m am aR tk MNts m am aR tk MNts m am aR tk MNt ; rb s ;el ak Proust ) anb Ba¢ ak; fa PaK sMNa kx us K ña éns m as F atu dUcK ñ aE tgE tm anF a tupS M rb s ;vak ñúgs m am aR tC am : as dUcK ñ a. dUec ñH R b sinebIey IgR t Uvvi PaK eTA elIP aK sMN akrb s ; ]sµ½ nkabUn DIGu ksIu t E dl T TYl) a nm kB I

CMB UkTI2

2-3

R b PBx us ² K ñaenaH eyI gnw gR b TH eX Ij faenA k ñúgP aK sM Nakn ImY y² pleFo b C am :as rb s ;v a dUcK ñ arv agk abUnn igGuks IuE s n dU cenH vas m eh tuplE d lfa R b sineb IpleFo b C a m :as énF a t u nImYy² x us K ñ akñ úgs m as F a tu mYyk MN t; e naH pleFo b G atUm rb s ;F at uT aMgG s ;enA kñ ú gs m as F at u enaH k¾R t UvE te frp gE dr. s mµtikm µTI2rb s ;el ak Dalton K aMR Tc,ab ;d ¾m ans arsM x an;mY yepS ge To t K W cccc ,,,, abababab ;; ;; Bh uBh uBh uBh u

s m am aR ts m am aR ts m am aR ts m am aR t . eyage TA tam c ,ab ;en aH R b sinebIF a tuBI rG a cpSMK ña edIm , Ib egá Its m as F a tuel Is BIm Y y enaH m :as é nF at umY yE dlpSM C amYym : as kM Nt ;énF a tu dé TeTo t K WC ap leFo b éncMn Y ns rub tU c. R TwsþI rb s ;ela k Dalton B nü l;c,ab ; Bhus m am aR t y: a gs am BaØbM pu tfa s m as F atux us K ñaE dl b egáI teL IgB IF at ud UcK ñaK Wx us K ñaR tg; cMn YnG a tUm é nF at unIm Y y² E dlpSMK ñ aen aH . ] Ta h rN_ kab Un b egáI ts m as zi te frBI rC amY yGuksI uE s n K W kabUnm :U NU GuksIu tni gkab UnD IGuksI ut. b ec© keT s énrgV as ; TMe nIb ) anb g ðaj f a G atUm mY yrb s ; kabU npSM C amYyG a tUm mY yrb s ;G uksI u E s nb egáItC a s m as F atu kabUnm :U NUGuks Iu t nigC am YyG at Um BIr rb s ;GuksI uE s nb egáI tC as m as F at ukabU n DIGuks Iu t. d Uec ñH pleFo b énGuksI uE s nenA kñ úgk abUn m :UNUG uksu ItC am YyGu ksIuE s nenA kñ úgkab Un DIGuks Iu tK W 1 : 2. lT§ ple nH R s b eTA nwgc,ab ;Bh us m am aR t.

s mµtikm µTI3rb s ;el ak Dalton K WC aviFImY yepS gkñ úgk ar b gðaj BI cccc ,,,, a ba ba ba b ;; ;; r kS amr kS amr kS amr kS am :: :: asasasas E dlE cg far Ub F at uTa MgG s ;mi nG acR t U v) anb egá Itb¤b Mpø aj eT. eda ys a rE tr Ub F at uR tU v) anb egá It eL Ig B I G atUm E dlm inR tU v) anp øas ;b þÚ renA kñ úgR b ti kmµK ImI eT Ib va eFVIeG a ym :as R tUvE tR tUv) anr kS apgE d r. K MnitR tecH R tcg ;rb s ;e lak Dalton cMeBaH F mµC at i énrUb F a tue nH C aka rC Mruj d¾s M x an;sMr ab ;k ar rIkc Mer In y:a gq ab ;rh ½s énK I mIviTü ae nA kñ úgkM lugs tv tS TI19enH . 2 TMrg;énGatUm tam lk çN³R K wH énR T WsþI rb s ; Dalton e yIgG a ckM Nt ;f a G a t UmG a t UmG a t UmG a t Um mYyK WC aÉk taR K wH r b s ; F atumY yE dlG acc UleTA k ñúg b nSMK ImI. ela k Dalton ) anR s ém faG a tUm K W tUcb Mpu t nigmi nG a c E b gE ck) aneL I y. b : uE nþk a rR s avR C av) an cab ;ep þIm e nA T s vtS qña M1850 n ig) a nb nþm kdl;s tv tS TI20) anb g ðaj y: agc, as ;f a tam Bi tG a tUm m an TM rg;x a gkñ ú grb s ;va K Wv aR tU v) anb g áe L IgBIPaK l ¥i t tUcC a genH eTo tpgE dleK e hA fa PaK l¥ itG at Um . ka rR s avR C avenH na M[ m an kar r keX Ij BIP aK TaM gbIenH K WeG L icR t ug R bUt u g nigN WR tu g.


2-4

2>1 eGLicRtug enA kñúg Ts v tS qña M 1890 Gñk viTü as aR sþC aeR cIn) aneFV Ika r sikS ae TA elI k a Mr s µIk a Mr s µIk a Mr s µIk a Mr s µI ; ; ; ; ka rb eB© aj nigk arb Ba ¢Ún fam Bl tam ry ³lMh kñ úgT Mrg ;C arl k. B t’ m anE dlT TYl) anBI ka rR s av R C avenH ) an pþl;K Mn it TU lMT Ula yd l;k ar yl; dwg rb s ;e yIgc MeB aH TMr g; G atUm . ]b kr N_mY yE d lR tUv) a neR b I edIm ,IG e gát) at uPU tenH K WbMB g;ka Mrsµ Ik atU t ¬ rUb2¦ . va C abMBg;E kvmY yE dlx ü l;P a K eR cInR tUv) an b eBa© j . enA eBlE dlb n Þ H elah ³BIrR t Uv) a neK tP ¢ab ;e TA nwgR b PBt g;sü úgx <s ; b nÞH E dlm an b nÞúkG v iC ¢m anehA eQ µ aH fa kat Ut b eB a© j ka Mrsµ IemIlmi n eX Ij . kaM rsµ Ika tU t enH R tU v ) anna MeTA r k b nÞH elah ³m anb n Þúk viC ¢m a n ehA fa G aNU t E d lvaqø gka t;r n§mY y eh Iyb n þdM e NIre TA cu gmçag eTo ténb MBg;. enA eB lE d lkaM rsµI enH eTA bukb :H ép ÞeR s ab C aBies s en aH vab egá Itc M NaMg Bnø Wx øa Mg mYy (a strong fluorescence) b¤Bnø WPø Wepø k.

enA kñúg Bies aF n_x øH b nÞH e lah ³m anb n ÞúkG K Á is nIB Irn i gem E dkmYyR tUv) anb E nßm e TA E pñk x ageR kA énbMBg ;ka Mrsµ Ik at Ut ¬rUb2¦ .

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 2 2 2 2 bMB gbMB gbMB gbMB g ;; ;; k aMr s µIk a t UtE dlm anE dk aMr s µIk a t UtE dlm anE dk aMr s µIk a t UtE dlm anE dk aMr s µIk a t UtE dlm anE d nG K Áis n IE kg eTA nwg T is é nk aMr s µIk a t Ut n igE dnnG K Áis n IE kg eTA nwg T is é nk aMr s µIk a t Ut n igE dnnG K Áis n IE kg eTA nwg T is é nk aMr s µIk a t Ut n igE dnnG K Áis n IE kg eTA nwg T is é nk aMr s µIk a t Ut n igE dn mmmm :: :: a eja eja eja ej T icx agT icx agT icx agT icx ag eR kAeR kAeR kAeR kA . . . . n im it þs B a Øan im it þs B a Øan im it þs B a Øan im it þs B a Øa N n ig n ig n ig n ig S s MK a ls MK a ls MK a ls MK a l ;; ;; [[[[ bbbb :: :: Ul x agUl x agUl x agUl x ag eC Ig nig x a gteC Ig nig x a gteC Ig nig x a gteC Ig nig x a gt ,,,, Úg én em E d kÚg én em E d kÚg én em E d kÚg én em E d k . . . . k a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µI k a t Ut n wgb uke TA cugm ça g énb MB gk a t Ut n wgb uke TA cugm ça g énb MB gk a t Ut n wgb uke TA cugm ça g énb MB gk a t Ut n wgb uke TA cugm ça g énb MB g ;; ;; e nA R t ge nA R t ge nA R t ge nA R t g ;; ;; c Mc Mc Mc M NNNN ucucucuc A c Me BaH v t þm a né nE d nmc Me BaH v t þm a né nE d nmc Me BaH v t þm a né nE d nmc Me BaH v t þm a né nE d nm :: :: a eja eja eja ej T icT icT icT ic e nAe nAe nAe nA c Mc Mc Mc M NNNN uc uc uc uc C

c Me BaHc Me BaHc Me BaHc Me BaH vt þm a né nE d nG K Áis n I n ige nA c Mvt þm a né nE d nG K Áis n I n ige nA c Mvt þm a né nE d nG K Áis n I n ige nA c Mvt þm a né nE d nG K Áis n I n ige nA c M NNNN uc uc uc uc B eeee nA eBlK µa nE d nnA eBlK µa nE d nnA eBlK µa nE d nnA eBlK µa nE d n x a geR kA rWe nA e Blx a geR kA rWe nA e Blx a geR kA rWe nA e Blx a geR kA rWe nA e Bl E dlE dlE dlE dl \\\\ T§iB lT§iB lT§iB lT§iB l é nE d nG K Áis n In igE dnmé nE d nG K Áis n In igE dnmé nE d nG K Áis n In igE dnmé nE d nG K Áis n In igE dnm :: :: a ej T ica ej T ica ej T ica ej T ic suIs gsuIs gsuIs gsuIs g K ña e TA vij e TA m kK ña e TA vij e TA m kK ña e TA vij e TA m kK ña e TA vij e TA m k ....

enA eBlE dlE dnm :aej Tic e bIknigE d nG K Áis n IbiT k aMrs µI kat Utbu kb :H cM Nuc A. enA eBl

E dlm anE tE dnG K Á is nI ebIk kaM rsµIb :H cMN uc C. enA eB lE dlE dnm : aej T icni gE dn G K Áis nIbi T b ¤

CMB UkTI2

2-5

enA eBlE dlv aebIk Ta MgBI r b :uE nþv af øwgK ñ a dUe cñH \ T§i B lvasI us gK ñae TA vij e TA m kk aMrsµ Ien aH bukb :H cMNu c B. t am R Twsþ IeG L icR tUm : aej T ick areFV Icl na rb s ;G gÁF a tum a nb nÞú k K WR b R Bwtþe TA dUc em E dkE dr ni gG aceFV IG nþ r kmµC amY yE dnG K Áis n Ini gE d nm :aej Tic E dlv aqøg ka t;e da ys ar kaM rs µI kat UtR tUv) a nT aj ed ayb n ÞH elah ³m anb n Þúk viC ¢n wgR t Uv) a nruj R ca ned ayb n ÞH elah ³ m anb nÞú k G viC ¢m anv aR tU vE tpÞ úkn UvPaK l¥i tm anb nÞ úkG v iC ¢m an. e yI gca t;T ukP aK l¥i t E dlm an b nÞúkG v iC ¢m a n TaM genH faC a e G L icR tuge G L icR tuge G L icR tuge G L icR tug .

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 3333 b gða j B Ib gða j B Ib gða j B Ib gða j B I \\\\ TTTT §§ §§ iB liB liB liB l én rén rén rén r )))) aem E d ke TA e lIk a Mr sµIk a t Utaem E d ke TA e lIk a Mr sµIk a t Utaem E d ke TA e lIk a Mr sµIk a t Utaem E d ke TA e lIk a Mr sµIk a t Ut ....

rUb vi TUC nC a tiG g ;eK øs mña k; eQ µaH Joseph John Thomson ) aneR bIbMBg;k aMrs µ I kat Ut nwgc MeNH dwgrb s ;K at ; BIR Twsþ IeG L icR t Um :a ej Ti c edIm ,I kM Nt ;pleFo b b nÞú kG K Áis nIe TA nwg m :as éneG L i cR tug nImY y² . cMnY nE dlK a t;r keX Ij K W - 1,76. 108 C/g E dl C K it C aK UL M E dl C ax ñat rb s ;b nÞ úkG K Áis n I. b nÞab ;m kk ñúgB ies aF n _C ae R cInE dlR t Uv) an dMe NI rka r enA cenøaH BIq ña M 1908 dl;qñ aM 1917 ela k R.A. Millikan ) anrkeX Ij b nÞúk éneG L icR tugmY ym a ntM é lesµI -1.60.10-19 C. BITi nñn ½ye n H K at;) anK N nam : as éneG L icR tugm Yy tam r Ub m nþd Ucx ageR kam ÷

m :as éneG L i cR tugm Yy =

= 8

19

1076,1

1060,1

×−×− −

= 9,09.10-28 g m :as enH K WC am :as E dl tU cbMpu t.

2>2 viTüúskmµ enA qñaM 1895 rUb vi TUC nC at i G aL Wm :g;mñ ak ;eQ µaH Wilhelm Rontgen ) a nk t;sMK a l; eX Ij fa k aM rsµI ka tU t) anb N þa l [ E kvnigel ah ³b eBa© j k aMr sIµminF mµ ta. ka rb eBa© j k aMrsµ If am Bl

b nÞúk b nÞúk¼m : as


2-6

x <s ;enH ) anqøg ka t; rUb F at u) a neFVI[ eL Ig BN’ ex µA nUvb n ÞH f trUb (photographic plate) R K b C itnig b Nþal[ s a rF a tuC aeR c Inb e Ba© j BnøW caM g. e da ys a r kaM rsµI TaM genH minG a cR tU v) a nb E gVred ay em E dk) anv aminG a cpÞ úkPaK l¥i tm anb nÞ úk dUcC a k aMrs µIk atU ten aH eT. el ak Rontgen ) a n[ eQ µaH vaf aC ak aM rsµI X BIeR Ba H R b ePTrb s ;vaminR tUv) aneK sÁal;. eR kaym km iny Urb : unµ anb n Þa b ;BIrb kK Meh Ij rb s ;e lak Rontgen ela k Antoine

Becquerel E dlC as aR sþ a carü rUb v iTü am ñak ;enA T IR kug) :a rIs ) an cab ;ep þIm si kS aB Ilkç N³PøW caM grb s ; s arF a tu. K a t;) a nrkeX Ij eda yéc dnü fa ka rda k;b n ÞH ftr Ub R K b C it[ R tUvs m as F atuG‘ uy ra :j :Úm b Nþal[ v aeL Ig ex µA ebIeTa H bIC aK µank areP JacB Ika Mrs µIk a tU tk¾e da y. d Uck aMrs µI X E dr kaMrs µI ) anm kBIs m as F at uG‘u yr: a j :Um m anf am Blx <s ; e hIyminG acR t Uv) anb E gV red ayem E d keL uI y b :uE nþvax us BIk aM rsµI X B IeR Ba H vaekI teL Ig eda yÉkÉ g. sisS mñak ;rb s ;el ak Becquere eQ µaH Marie Curie ) anes ñIeQ µ a H vvvv iTü ús km µiTü ús km µiTü ús km µiTü ús km µedIm ,IB iBN’ nab nS aye da yÉkÉg énPaK l ¥i tni g/b¤ k a Mr sµIk a Mr sµIk a Mr sµIk a Mr sµI. b nÞab ;BI eBlen aH m kF at uN a E dls ay kaM rsµ Ied ayÉ kÉg R tUv) an ehA faC a v iTü ús km µ .

kaM rsµI3 R b ePTR tU v) anb eg áI teL Ige da yk arbME b ks a rF atu viTü ús kmµd UcC aGu ‘y r: aj :Úm enH . kaM rsµIB Irk ñúg cMe Nam k aMrs µI TaM gbIR tUv) anb E gVre da ys a rb nÞH elah ³m a nb nÞú kR b Q m ¬rUb4¦.

k a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µI α pÞúkP aK l¥i tm a nb nÞú k viC ¢m an ehA fa P a K l¥itP a K l¥itP a K l¥itP a K l¥it α d Ue cñH vaR t Uv) anb E gV red ayb nÞH m anb nÞú k viC ¢m an. k a Mr s µI k a Mr s µI k a Mr s µI k a Mr s µI β b¤ P aK l ¥it P aK l ¥it P aK l ¥it P aK l ¥it β K WC aeG L icR tugR t Uv ) anb E gVre da yb nÞH el ah ³m anb nÞú k G viC ¢m an. k aMrs µIv iTü ús km µR b ePTTI3 p Þúk kaM rsµ Im anf am Blx <s ;ehA fa k a Mr s µI k a Mr s µI k a Mr s µI k a Mr s µI γ . dUc kaM rsµI X

E dr kaM rsµ I γ K µanb n Þúk eT n igmi nrg\ T§ iBle da yE dnx a geR kA eT.

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 4444 R b e PTb IR b e PTb IR b e PTb IR b e PTb I é nrb sé nrb sé nrb sé nrb s ;; ;; k a Mrs µIE dlb e Ba© jk a Mrs µIE dlb e Ba© jk a Mrs µIE dlb e Ba© jk a Mrs µIE dlb e Ba© j eeee d a yF a t uv iTü ús kmµd a yF a t uv iTü ús kmµd a yF a t uv iTü ús kmµd a yF a t uv iTü ús kmµ . . . . k aMr sµIk aMr sµIk aMr sµIk aMr sµI β p Þúkp Þúkp Þúkp Þúk P aKP aKP aKP aK l ¥it m anb n Þúkl ¥it m anb n Þúkl ¥it m anb n Þúkl ¥it m anb n Þúk G v iC ¢m a n¬ eG L ic R t ug ¦G v iC ¢m a n¬ eG L ic R t ug ¦G v iC ¢m a n¬ eG L ic R t ug ¦G v iC ¢m a n¬ eG L ic R t ug ¦ dUe cñH v aR tUvdUe cñH v aR tUvdUe cñH v aR tUvdUe cñH v aR tUv )))) a nT aj ed a yb n ÞHa nT aj ed a yb n ÞHa nT aj ed a yb n ÞHa nT aj ed a yb n ÞH el ahel ahel ahel ah ³³³³ m anm anm anm an b nÞúk v iC ¢m a nb nÞúk v iC ¢m a nb nÞúk v iC ¢m a nb nÞúk v iC ¢m a n . . . . E p ñk E p ñk E p ñk E p ñk R b Q m R b Q m R b Q m R b Q m s Mr abs Mr abs Mr abs Mr ab ;; ;; k a Mr sµI k a Mr sµI k a Mr sµI k a Mr sµI α E d lE d lE d lE d l m anb nÞúk v iC ¢m anm anb nÞúk v iC ¢m anm anb nÞúk v iC ¢m anm anb nÞúk v iC ¢m an n igR t Uvn igR t Uvn igR t Uvn igR t Uv )))) an Taj eTA rkan Taj eTA rkan Taj eTA rkan Taj eTA rk b nÞHb nÞHb nÞHb nÞH e lahe lahe lahe lah ³³³³ m a nb n Þúk G viC ¢m anm a nb n Þúk G viC ¢m anm a nb n Þúk G viC ¢m anm a nb n Þúk G viC ¢m an . . . . e d ay s a rk aMe d ay s a rk aMe d ay s a rk aMe d ay s a rk aM r s µI r s µI r s µI r s µI γ K µa nb n ÞúkK µa nb n ÞúkK µa nb n ÞúkK µa nb n Þúk p øÚv rb sp øÚv rb sp øÚv rb sp øÚv rb s ;; ;; v av av av a r gr gr gr g \\\\ TTTT §§ §§ iB liB liB liB l e d aye d aye d aye d ay E dnE dnE dnE dn G K Áis nIx ageR kAG K Áis nIx ageR kAG K Áis nIx ageR kAG K Áis nIx ageR kA e Te Te Te T ....

CMB UkTI2

2-7

2>3 RbUtugnigéNVy:U enA edIm Ts vtS qñ aM1900 lkçN³B Ir y: agénG a tUm R tU veK b kR s ay y: agc, a s ;K Wvap Þúk eG L icR tug nigv am an crn þG K Ái s nINW t. edIm , IrkS aPa B NWtG K Á is nIG at Um mYyR t UvE tm anc MnY nb nÞú k viC öm an nigb n ÞúkG v iC öm anes µI K ña. dU ecñH el ak Thomson ) anesñI eL Igf aG a tUm E sVviC öm anÉks N æa n énrUb F a tuE d lkñ úgen aH eG L i cR tugR t Uv) a nb gáb ; dUc TMB aMg ) ayC Ur kñ úgnM ¬r Ub5¦. K MrUE dlehA f a nMb gáb ;E pø eQ I (plum-pudding model) enH K WC aR Tws þIE d leK TT Yly kC aeR cI nqña M.

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 5555 ³ ³ ³ ³ K Mr UG at Um rb sK Mr UG at Um rb sK Mr UG at Um rb sK Mr UG at Um rb s ;; ;; e l ak e l ak e l ak e l ak Thomson E dlC Yn ka lR t ÚvE dlC Yn ka lR t ÚvE dlC Yn ka lR t ÚvE dlC Yn ka lR t Úv )))) anananan B iB N’n a f aB iB N’n a f aB iB N’n a f aB iB N’n a f a C aK Mr Un MC aK Mr Un MC aK Mr Un MC aK Mr Un M b gb gb gb g áá áá bbbb ;; ;; E p øeQ IE p øeQ IE p øeQ IE p øeQ I . . . . eG L icR t úgC a eR c InR t ÚveG L icR t úgC a eR c InR t ÚveG L icR t úgC a eR c InR t ÚveG L icR t úgC a eR c InR t Úv )))) anananan b g ább g ább g ább g áb ;; ;; e nA kñúge nA kñúge nA kñúge nA kñúg E s VE s VE s VE s V ‘‘ ‘‘ m anb nÞúk v iC ¢m anm anb nÞúk v iC ¢m anm anb nÞúk v iC ¢m anm anb nÞúk v iC ¢m an ÉÉÉÉ ks Næa nks Næa nks Næa nks Næa n ....

r Ub r Ub r Ub r Ub 6666 (a) Bie s aFBie s aFBie s aFBie s aF nnnn __ __ r b sr b sr b sr b s ;; ;; e l a k e l a k e l a k e l a k Rutherford e dIme dIme dIme dIm ,,,, II II v asv asv asv as ;; ;; B Ik ar BR ga y énP aK l ¥itB Ik ar BR ga y énP aK l ¥itB Ik ar BR ga y énP aK l ¥itB Ik ar BR ga y énP aK l ¥it α b nb nb nb n ÞÞ ÞÞ H m asH m asH m asH m as es þIg m Yys nøwkes þIg m Yys nøwkes þIg m Yys nøwkes þIg m Yys nøwk . . . . PaK l¥itPaK l¥itPaK l¥itPaK l¥it α PaK eR cIn qøg k a tPaK eR cIn qøg k a tPaK eR cIn qøg k a tPaK eR cIn qøg k a t ;; ;; s nøwk m ass nøwk m ass nøwk m ass nøwk m as e da ye da ye da ye da y m an t ic tYc b¤m an t ic tYc b¤m an t ic tYc b¤m an t ic tYc b¤ K µa nK µa nK µa nK µa n k a rb E gVrk a rb E gVrk a rb E gVrk a rb E gVr . . . . m anE tm anE tm anE tm anE t P aK lP aK lP aK lP aK l ¥¥ ¥¥ it m Yy c Mn Yn t Ucit m Yy c Mn Yn t Ucit m Yy c Mn Yn t Ucit m Yy c Mn Yn t Uc bbbb :: :: ue N ÑaH E dlR tUvue N ÑaH E dlR tUvue N ÑaH E dlR tUvue N ÑaH E dlR tUv )))) a nb E gVr t ama nb E gVr t ama nb E gVr t ama nb E gVr t am mmmm Mud ¾F MMud ¾F MMud ¾F MMud ¾F M . . . . C Yn k alC Yn k alC Yn k alC Yn k al m anP aK l ¥itm anP aK l ¥itm anP aK l ¥itm anP aK l ¥it α

R tUvR tUvR tUvR tUv )))) a na na na n b E gVrb E gVrb E gVrb E gVr R tlbR tlbR tlbR tlb ;; ;; e TA eR k ay v ije TA eR k ay v ije TA eR k ay v ije TA eR k ay v ij .... (b)C a rUb BR gIk én PaK l¥itC a rUb BR gIk én PaK l¥itC a rUb BR gIk én PaK l¥itC a rUb BR gIk én PaK l¥it α E dlE dlE dlE dl q øg ka tq øg ka tq øg ka tq øg ka t ;; ;; b¤b¤b¤b¤ R t UvR t UvR t UvR t Uv )))) a nb E g Vr a nb E g Vr a nb E g Vr a nb E g Vr e d ay é NVy Ue d ay é NVy Ue d ay é NVy Ue d ay é NVy U :.:.:.:.

enA qñaM1910 Gñ krUb v iT UC nC a tin UE vles L g;eQ µaH Ernest Rutherford E dl) a n sikS a C amYyel ak Thomson enA s klvi Tü al½ y Cambridge ) a nsMer cci tþ eR bIPaK l¥ i t α edIm , I Bini tü emIlT Mrg ;rb s ;G a tUm . elak Rutherford rYm C amYyGñ kC Mn Yy kar rb s ;K a t;e Q µaH Hans

b nÞúkvi C¢m anray ):ay elI EsV ‘T aMgR su g


2-8

Geiger n ignisS it ]t þm sik S aeQ µaH Ernest Marsden ) aneFVIB ies aF n _C aeR cIn e da yeR bIs nøw k m as esþIg² n igs nø wkel ah ³ déT² C aeK aledA sM rab ;P aK l¥i t α BIR b PBvi Tü ús kmµ ¬ rUb6¦.

eK ) ans egá teX Ij faP aK l¥i tPaK eR cI n) anqø gka t;s n øw k esþIge naH eda yminR tUv) an b E gVr rWm an karb E gV rt ic tYc. b :uE nþenA eB lenH nig enA eBle R kayP aK l¥i t α R tUv) anBR g a yb¤b E gVrC a mMuFM. e nA eBlx øH PaK l¥ it α R tUv) a nb Baö ÚnR tL b ; tam Ti s E dlva) a nm k. e nH K WC akar rkeX Ij K Yr[ PJa k;ep ¥IlbMp ut s Mrab ;K M rUrb s ;e lak Thomson E d lb nÞúk viC ¢m a nrb s ;G a tUm s a yPa yx øa Mg dUec ñH E dlPaK l¥ it α viC ¢m an K YrE tqøgk at ;s nø wkes þIgE dl m anlMg ak tic tY c. edIm , I R s g;Bakü R b tikmµd MbUgrb s ; Rutherford enA eBlE dln iy ayB Irb kK MehIj ³ { vaminK Ur[ eC O eT dU cenA eB l E dlGñk) aj ;R K ab ; ka NugFM TM hM#%s g ;T IE m :R t s MedA c MR k das C U tm at ;mY ys nø wk eh I yR K ab ;ka Nug enaH R tL b ;m kbukG ñkvij .}

eR kaym k eTo te lak Rutherford G acB nü l;) anB I lT§pl énBi es aF _BR g ayP a K l¥it α kñúg n½ yK MrU fµ ImYys Mr ab ;G a tUm . eya geTA tam el ak Rutherford G at Um PaK eR cInR tU vE tC alMh

TeT. e nH Bnü l;f aeh t uGVI ) anC aPaK l ¥i t α PaK R cIn) a nqøgka t;s nøw km as ed aym ant ic tYcb ¤ K µank arb E gVr enaH . el ak Rutherford ) anes ñIeL I gfa b nÞúkviC ¢m anrb s ;G at Um Ta M gG s ;R b mYl pþMúe nA kñú g é N Vyé N Vyé N Vyé N Vy :U E d lC asñ Úl kNþ alx ab ;E N n ( a dense central core) enA kñú gG at U m . eBlN a E dlPaK l¥ it α m kC i téN Vy :U enA kñúg Bies aF n_BR ga yen aH vaeFV I[ m ank Mla Mgc Mra necj d¾x øa MgmY y ehIy dUec ñH karb E g Vrk ¾x øaM gE d r. el Is BIenH e TA eTo tP a K l¥it α E dleFVI dMe NIreq <a H R tg;eTA r k éNV y:U nwgR tUv) a nR can ecj T aMgR sugeh Iy Tis rb s ;va k¾R c as m kvij E d r. PaK l¥i tm anb n Þúk viC ¢m a nenA kñúg éNV y: UehA fa R b Ut ugR b Ut ugR b Ut ugR b Ut ug . enA kñúg ka rBies aF da c;e da yE L k BIK ña vaR t Uv) a neK rkeX I j faR bUt ugnIm Yy² m a nb rim a Nb nÞú kdU ceG L icR t ugE d r nigm anm : as 1,67252 x 10-24 g K WR b E hlnwg 1840 d génm : as rb s ; eG L icR tugE d lm anb n Þúkp Þú yK ña.

enA dMN ak ;enH én karR s a vR C avGñkvi Tü as aR sþ yl; BIG a tUm dUc teTA e nH ³ m :as éné NV y:UC a m :as PaK eR cI nénG a tUm TaM g mUl b :uE n þéN Vy :Um a nm aDE tR b E h l 1/1013 énm aDrb s ;G atUm b :ueN ÑaH . e yI gG acsME dgvi m aR trb s ;G a tUm(nigm : UelK u l) tam x ña t SI E dleK eh A fa BI kUE m :R t (picometer) ehI y 1 pm = 1 x 10-12 m. kaMG at Um t Y y:a gm anR b E vgR b E h l 100 pm cME Nk ÉkaMé NV y: UG at Um K WR b E h l 5 x 10-3 pm. . eyIgG aceR bo b eFo b TMhMG a tUm mY ynig éNV y:U rb s ;v a eda yR s ém faR b sineb IG at U m mYyC aT MhMrb s ;s þa tGUL a M Bik m aD éné NV y:U rb s ;v aG a ceR bo b eFob

CMB UkTI2

2-9

eTA nwg\ d æmY ydu M. enA eB lE dlR bUtu gR tUv) aneK k MN t;R BME dn enA kñ úgé NV y:U énG a tU m enaH eG L ic R tugR tU v) aneK K i tf ar ay): a yenA C Mu vij é NV y:U enA cm¶a y BIvax øH E dr . b BaØt iþé nka MG a tUm m ans arR b eyaC n _kñ úgk areFV IBies aF n_ b :uE nþvaminK Yrs n ñid æan fa G at Um m anR BME dlb¤m a népÞ kM Nt ;) anl¥e naH eT . enA eBleR k a yey Ign wgd wgf a t Mb n;x ag e R kA énG atUm K WminsUvc, as ;e T (fuzzy). 2>4 NWRtug K MrUT Mrg ;G a tUm r rb s ;ela k Rutherford ) anb nS l; nUvb B að asMx an ;mYy E dlmin Ta n;) an edaH R s ay. K WeK ) a ndw gf aGuIR dYE s nE dlC aG a tUm s am BaØ bMputm a nE tR bUt ugmY y n ig G atUm eG lü Úm m anR bUtu gBIr . dU ecñH ple Fo b C am :as énG at Um eG lü Ú m nigG a tUm GIuR d UE s nK W2:1 ¬ed ays ar eG L icR tugR s a lC agR bUt ug dUecñH k arr Ym cME N krb s ;v a kñúgm : as G a tUm G ac eca l) an ¦. b :uE nþk ar Bitpl eFo b K W4:1. elak Rutherford ni gGñk déT eTo t) ans n µt fa R t UvE tm a nR b ePTPaK l ¥i t b gáG at Um enA kñ úgé NV y:UG at U m E dlPsþút ag R tUv) anpþ l;[ eda y rUb vi TUC nC a tiG g ;e K øs mñak; eTo t eQ µaH James Chadwick enA kñúgqñ aM 1932.

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 7777 R bUt ugR bUt ugR bUt ugR bUt ug n ig NWn ig NWn ig NWn ig NW R tug é nG at Um m YyR tug é nG at Um m YyR tug é nG at Um m YyR tug é nG at Um m Yy R t UvR t UvR t UvR t Uv )))) anx © banx © banx © banx © b ;; ;; e nA k ñúg éN Vye nA k ñúg éN Vye nA k ñúg éN Vye nA k ñúg éN Vy :: :: Ud ¾t Uc b Mput m YyUd ¾t Uc b Mput m YyUd ¾t Uc b Mput m YyUd ¾t Uc b Mput m Yy . . . . eG L icR t ugeG L icR t ugeG L icR t ugeG L icR t ug R tUvR tUvR tUvR tUv )))) a na na na n b g ðaj C aB BkE dle nA C Muv ij é N Vyb g ðaj C aB BkE dle nA C Muv ij é N Vyb g ðaj C aB BkE dle nA C Muv ij é N Vyb g ðaj C aB BkE dle nA C Muv ij é N Vy :: :: UU UU ....

enA eBlel ak Chadwick ) an) aj ;s n øwk esþI gmYy éne lah ³eb rI lü Úm eda yP aK l¥i t α kaM rsµI fam Bl d¾x <s ;R s e do g K ñaeTA n wgk aMrs µI γ R tUv) anb e Ba© j eda yel ah ³. Bies a F n_eR ka y²


2-10

m keTo t) a nb gðaj fa kaM rsµI TaM genaH Bi tC ap Þúk nUvR b eP T TI3 énPaK l ¥i tb gáG a tUm E dlelak) an ehA fa N WN WN WN W R t ugR t ugR t ugR t ug BIeR BaH eK ) anb gðaj Psþú ta gfa vaC aP a K l¥itE d lm anb n ÞúkG K Á is nI NWtE dlm an m a:s FMC agR bU tugE tb n þicb n þÜ c. G a f’k M) aMg énpl eFo b m :as \ L ÚvenH eK G aceFV Ik arBn ü l;) an. enA kñúg éNV y: UeG lü Úm m anR bU tug BIrn igN WR tug BIr b :uE nþe nA kñ ú géNV y: UGIuR d UE s nm anE tR bU tu gmYyehI y K µanN WR tug eT d Uec ñH pleFo b rb s ;vaK W 4:1.

tar ag 1 m a:s nigb n Þúké nPa K l¥itb g áG a tUm

PaKl¥it m:as (g) bnÞúk

KitCaKULM (C) xñatbnÞúk eGLicRtug RbUtug NWRtug

9,1095>10-28

1,67252.10-24

1,67495. 10-24

-1,6022.10-1

+ 1,6022.10-19

0

-1

+1

0

rUb7) anb gð aj BI TI ta Mgrb s ;P aK l¥i trb s ;F a tu kñú gG a tUm ¬R bUtug eG L icR tu g nig NWR tug ¦. m anPaK l¥ itb g áG a tUm epS ge To t b : uE nþeG L icR tug R bUtu g nig NWR tug K WC aF a tub gáb I C amUldæ ané n G atUm E dlm ans a rsMx an ;en A kñúgK ImI viTü a . ta ra g1 b gðaj BIm : as ni gb nÞú kénP aK l¥i tTa MgbIé n F atu. 3 elxGatUm cMnYnm:as nigGIusUtUb G atUm TaM gG s ;G acR t Uv) a nkM Nt;G tþs B aØ aNe da yR bUtu g nigeG L icR tugE d lvam a n.

e lxe lxe lxe lx G a t UmG a t UmG a t UmG a t Um E dleK taged a y Z K WC a cMn YnR bUt ugenA kñúg éNV y: UénG atUm nImY y² r b s ;F atumY y. enA kñúgG at Um NW tc MnYnR bU tug K WesµIn wgcM nYn eG L icR t ug dU ecñH elx G at Um k¾b B a¢a k;B IcM nY neG L icR tu g E dlm anenA k ñúgG at Um enaH p gE dr. l kçN³s MK al ; K ImIrb s ;G a tUm mY yG acR t Uv) ankM Nt ;E tB I elx G atUm rb s ;va. C a] Ta h rN_ elx G a tUm énG asUt K WesµI7. enH m ann ½y fa G a tUm G asU tN Wt nImYy² m a nR bUt ug 7 n ige G L icR tug 7 b¤ni ya ymü : ageTo tra l;G a tUm k ñúgB iPBe lakE dlm an R bUtugc MnU n 7 R tUv) a nd ak;e Q µaH faG as Ut. c Mn Ynmc Mn Ynmc Mn Ynmc Mn Ynm :: :: a sa sa sa s E dleK tage da y A KWC acM nYns rub rb s ;R bUtug nig NWR t ugE dlm a ne nA kñúg éNV y:U rb s ;G a tUm é nF at umY y. e lIkE lg cMeB aH TM rg; d¾s am B aØbMp ut rb s ;GIuR d UE s n E dlm anE t R bUtugmY yehI yK µa nN WR tug R K b ;éNVy :Ué nG a tUm T aMgG s ;m anT aMgR bU tug nig NWR t ug . C aTU eTA eK K Nnac MnYnm :as e da y³

CMB UkTI2

2-11

cMnY nm :as = cMn YnR bUt ug + cMnY nNWR tug = cMnY nG at Um + c MnYn NWR tug cMnY nNWR tuge nA kñú gG a tUm mY yK Wesµ Inwg pls gr vag cMn Yn m :as nig elx G at Um b¤esµ I ( A-

Z). C a]T ah rN _ m :as rb s ;Pøú yG rK Wes µI 19 ehIy el x G atUm rb s ;v aK Wes µI 9 ¬b Ba ¢ ak; fa 9 R bUtug enA kñúg éN Vy :U. dUe cñH cM nYn NW R túgenA k ñúgG at Um mYy rb s ;Pøú yG rK W 19 - 9 = 10. cUr kt;s MK al; f a elx G atUm c MnY nNWR tug n ig cMnY nm :as TaM gG s ;R tU vE tC ae lx K t;viC ¢m an. G atUm é nF at umY yminm a nm :a s dUcK ñ aT aMgG s ;e naH eT . F atuP aK eR cInm anGI usUt Ub BIr rWe R cIn ¬ G Ius Ut UbG Ius Ut UbG Ius Ut UbG Ius Ut Ub KWG at Um E dlm ane lx G atUm d UcK ñ a b :uE nþc MnY nm :a s ;rb s ;vax us K ña ¦. ]T ah r N_ GIuR d UE s n m anGIusU tUb c MnY nbI. mY y K WGIuR dUE s nF mµ taE dlm anE t R bUtugmY yni gK µan NWR tuge T . GIusUt Ub dWe trü Úm m anR bU tugmY yn igN WR tugmY y c ME NkÉGI usU tUm R TIc Um m anR bUt ugmY yni gNWR tu gBIr. viF I E dlR tUv) a nT TYl yke dIm , I kt;s MK al; elx G at Um nig cMn Y nm :as rb s ;G at Um énF a tumY yR tUv) an sMK al; dUcx a geR kam ³

cMnYnm :as XA

Z elx G atUm dUec ñH cMeB aH GIusU tUb rb s ;G IuR dU E s n eyIgG a cs res r÷

H11 H2

1 H31

GIuR dUE s n dWe trü Úm R TIc U m C a]Tah rN _mYy epS ge To t cU rBin itü emIlG IusU tUb s am BaØB Irrb s ;G‘u yr: aj : Úm E dl m ancMn Ynm : as ero gK ñ aK W 235 nig238. U235

92 U23892

GuIsUt Ub TI1R tUv) aneK eR bIk ñúge rG ak; T½ rnu yek øE G ‘ nigR K a b ;E b kG atUmi c cME N kÉGIu sUt Ub TIBI rK Wx VH lkç N³c aM) a c;sM rab ; kareR bIR ) as ; Ta MgenH . eda ym an krN Iel IkE lgc Me BaH GIuR dUE s n E dlm aneQ µ aH x us ² K ñasMr a b ;GIusU tUb nIm Yy² GIus Ut Ub é nF atuR tUv) ank MN t;G t þs Ba Øa Ned ayc MnY n m :as rb s ;v a. d UecñH c MeBaH GI u sUtUb B Irx age lIeK ehA G‘u yr :a j :Úm 235 nigG‘ uy r: aj :Úm 238 .

lkçN³K ImIénF a tum YyR t Uv) a nkMN t;C asMx an ;ed ayR bU tug nigeG L icR tuge nA kñú gG a tUm rb s ;va cME N kÉN WR tugm in cUlr Ym enA kñ úgbME rbM rYlK Im Ien aH eT e nA eR kam lk çx NÐF mµ ta. dU ecñH


2-12

GIusUt Ub énF a tu dUcK ñam a nlkç N³K IimI d UcK ña kñú gka rb egá ItR b ePTdU cK ñas m as F atu n ig kñúg kab gð aj R b tikmµd UcK ñ a. ]Tah r N_x a geR kam e nH b gða j BIka rK Nn acMn YnR bUt ug NWR tu g ni geG L icR t ug e da y eR bIelx G atUm n igelx m : as . ]Tah r N_ 1 /1

K Nnac MnYnR bU tug NWR t ug n i geG L icR tu gkñ úgR b ePTK ImIx ageR kam e nH . k> O17

8 x Hg19980 K Hg200

80 cMelI y k> elx G a tUm K W 8 dUecñH v am an 8 R bÚt ug. e da ycMn Ynm : as K W 17 dUe cñH cMnY n

NWR tu gK W 17-8= 9. cMn YneG L icR tugK W dU cK ñae TA nwg cMn YnR bUtugE d r K W 8. x > elx G atUm K W 80 dUe cñH vam anR bU tug cMn Yn 80. cMnYnm : as rb s ; vaK W 199 dUecñH cMnY nNWR tug rb s ;vaK W 199-80 =119. cMn YneG L i cR tugK W 80.

K > cMnYnR bU tugé nG a tUm rb s ; F atue nH k¾d UcK ñ aeTA n wgcM nuc b E drK W80. cMn YnN WR tugK W 200-

80=120. cM nYneG L icR tu g k¾d UcK ña eTA nw gcM nuc b E drK W 80. dU ecñH R b ePTGI usU tUb e nA kñúg cMn uc b

nigc Mnuc c K WC aGI usUt Ub E dl m anlkç N³K ImIR s edo gK ñ aé n) ar t. lMh at ;G nu vt þn_ etIm a nR bUtu g NWR tug n igeG L icR tugb : unµ ane nA kñú gGIus UtUb rb s ;Tg ;E dg Cu63

29 ?

4 taragxYb F atuK ImIC agBa k;k Nþ alE dl eK sÁal;s B Véf ¶enH R tU v) an eK rkeX Ij enA kñúg cen øaH qña M1800

nigqña M1900. kñ ugkM luge B lenaH K ImIvi TU) a nk t;sMK a l;eX Ij f a F atuC aeR cInm a nlkç N³d UcK ña eR cIn. ka ry l;d wgBI lkç N³eTo g Ta t;C ax Yb é nlkç N ³rUb nigK ImI nig tM rUvk are dIm , I ero b cMBt ’m an TUlM TU la yE dlG ac rk) a nGM BITM rg; n igl kçN ³éns a rF atu naM[ m ank arb eg áIt t a r a gx Ybt a r a gx Ybt a r a gx Ybt a r a gx Yb E dlC a tar agE dlF at um anl kçN ³rU b nigK ImId UcK ñ aR tUv) aneK d ak ; enA kñúgR k um C amY yK ña. rUb8b gðaj B I tar agx Yb T Men Ib E dlF a tuT aM gG s ;R tUv) aneK t Mero b eTA ta m elx G atUm (E d leK b gða j enA x age l I nimit þs Ba Øaé nF at u) kñ úgC Yr ed kehA fa x Ybx Ybx Ybx Yb nigkñ úgC Y rQ re hA fa R kum R kum R kum R kum b¤ R s l ayR s l ayR s l ayR s l ay G aR s½yeTA tam PaBdU cK ña énlk çN³K Im Irb s ;va. c Urc MN aMF a tu 110, 111 nig 112 K WC aF a tuE d leK e TIb E tsMe yaK enA eBlfµ I² enH ebIe TaH bIC av aminT an;m aneQ µ aH k¾e da y.

CMB UkTI2

2-13

F atu TaM gG s ;R tU v) aneK E ckC abIBYk K We lah ³ G elah ³ nigGMp UE T. e l ahe l ahe l ahe l ah ³³³³ K WC aF atu cMl gkMe dA nig crn þG K Áis nI) a nl¥ cME N kÉ G el ahG el ahG el ahG el ah ³³³³ vij K WC aF at ucM lg kMedA n igc rn þ G K Áis nImin l¥. G Mp UE T G Mp UE T G Mp UE T G Mp UE T KWC a F atuE d lm anl kçN³C aela h ³pg ni gC aG el ah ³pg. rUb 8 b gðaj faF a tuP aK eR cInE dl eK sÁa l;K WC ael ah ³ ehI ym anE t F atu17 b : ueN ÑaH E dlC aG e l ah ³ehIym an F atu 8 C aGMp UE T. BIeq Vge T A sþaMt am x Yb lkç N³r Ub nigK I mIrb s ;F at uE R b R bYlb nþicmþg ² BIelah ³ eTA G elah ³.

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 8888 t ar agx Yb T Me nIbt ar agx Yb T Me nIbt ar agx Yb T Me nIbt ar agx Yb T Me nIb . . . . F a t uT aMg G sF a t uT aMg G sF a t uT aMg G sF a t uT aMg G s ;; ;; R t UvR t UvR t UvR t Uv )))) an ero b e TA tam elxan ero b e TA tam elxan ero b e TA tam elxan ero b e TA tam elx G at UmG at UmG at UmG at Um E d lenA x agE d lenA x agE d lenA x agE d lenA x ag el In iel In iel In iel In i mit þmit þmit þmit þ s B a Øa rb ss B a Øa rb ss B a Øa rb ss B a Øa rb s ;; ;; v av av av a . . . . el IkE l gE t GIuR d UE s nel IkE l gE t GIuR d UE s nel IkE l gE t GIuR d UE s nel IkE l gE t GIuR d UE s n G el ahG el ahG el ahG el ah ³³³³ ssss ßitßitßitßit e nA x ags þa Mé nt a ra gx Ybe nA x ags þa Mé nt a ra gx Ybe nA x ags þa Mé nt a ra gx Ybe nA x ags þa Mé nt a ra gx Yb . . . . e lahe lahe lahe lah ³³³³ BIr C Yr e dk BIr C Yr e dk BIr C Yr e dk BIr C Yr e dk E d le nA x a geR k am ta ra gFMR t UvE d le nA x a geR k am ta ra gFMR t UvE d le nA x a geR k am ta ra gFMR t UvE d le nA x a geR k am ta ra gFMR t Uv )))) a na na na n da kda kda kda k ;; ;; [[[[ da cda cda cda c ;; ;; B Ie K ed ImB Ie K ed ImB Ie K ed ImB Ie K ed Im ,,,, Ik MuIk MuIk MuIk Mu [[[[ t ar agx Yb e naH F MeB kt ar agx Yb e naH F MeB kt ar agx Yb e naH F MeB kt ar agx Yb e naH F MeB k . . . . k ar Bitk ar Bitk ar Bitk ar Bit Ce

K Yr E td akK Yr E td akK Yr E td akK Yr E td ak ;; ;; e nAe nAe nAe nA b nb nb nb n ÞÞ ÞÞ abababab ; ; ; ; LLLLa eh Iy eh Iy eh Iy eh Iy Th K UrE td a kK UrE td a kK UrE td a kK UrE td a k ;; ;; e nAe nAe nAe nA x a gs aþMx a gs aþMx a gs aþMx a gs aþM b nÞa bb nÞa bb nÞa bb nÞa b ;; ;; BIBIBIBI Ac . . . . k a rd akk a rd akk a rd akk a rd ak ;; ;; R k um B Ie lx R k um B Ie lx R k um B Ie lx R k um B Ie lx 1----18

R tUvR tUvR tUvR tUv )))) aaaa nnnn [[[[ e y ab le y ab le y ab le y ab l ;; ;; e d a y e d a y e d a y e d a y IUPAC bbbb :: :: uE n þv am in Ta nuE n þv am in Ta nuE n þv am in Ta nuE n þv am in Ta n ;; ;; R t UvR t UvR t UvR t Uv )))) a neK eR b IC a TUe TA eTa neK eR b IC a TUe TA eTa neK eR b IC a TUe TA eTa neK eR b IC a TUe TA eT . . . . k ñúgk ñúgk ñúgk ñúg G tßG tßG tßG tß b Te nHb Te nHb Te nHb Te nH e y Ige y Ige y Ige y Ig eR bIReR bIReR bIReR bIR )))) asasasas ;; ;; s B a Øa Ns þgs B a Øa Ns þgs B a Øa Ns þgs B a Øa Ns þg ;; ;; dadadada U.S. s Mr abs Mr abs Mr abs Mr ab ;; ;; e lx R k um B Ie lx R k um B Ie lx R k um B Ie lx R k um B I 1A-8A e h Iye h Iye h Iye h Iy B I B I B I B I 1B-8B.... F a t u F a t u F a t u F a t u 113 n ig n ig n ig n ig 115-118 m in T anm in T anm in T anm in T an ;; ;; R t UvR t UvR t UvR t Uv )))) ans Mey aK enA e L Iyans Mey aK enA e L Iyans Mey aK enA e L Iyans Mey aK enA e L Iy ....

F atu TaM gG s ;R tU v) aneK dak ;C as mUh PaBe TA kñ úgt ar agx Yb eTA tam e lx R kum ¬R k u m1A

R kum2A.l.¦ . b :uE n þed Im ,I [ m anPaBg ayR sYlR k um x øH énF at u R t Uv) an eK [ eQ µaH Bi es s . R kum


2-14

1A E dlm an Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs nig FrR tUv) aneK [ e Q µaH fa e l ahe l ahe l ahe l ah ³³³³ G a lG a lG a lG a l ;; ;; k aL a Mgk aL a Mgk aL a Mgk aL a Mg nigF a tuenA k ñúg R kum 2A E dlm a n Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba n ig Ra R tUv) a neK ehA eQ µaH fa e l a he l a he l a he l a h ³³³³ G alG alG alG al ;; ;; k al IN UE Tr Wk al IN UE Tr Wk al IN UE Tr Wk al IN UE Tr W F atuE d lenA kñ úgR kum 7A E dlm an F, Cl, Br, I ni g AtR tUv) a neK sÁa l;f aC aB BYk G aL ÚE s nG aL ÚE s nG aL ÚE s nG aL ÚE s n ehIyF a tue nA kñú gR kum 8A dU cC a He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe ni g Rn K WR t Uv) a neK [ e Q µaH fa]s µ½n nicl b¤ ]]]] s µ½n k Mrs µ½n k Mrs µ½n k Mrs µ½n k Mr . tar agx Yb K WC a ]b kr N_d ¾m an R b eyaC n_E dlb g ðaj l kç N ³énF at uC aR b B½n§ nigC Y ye yI g[ eFVIka rTsS n_T ayG MBIl kç N ³K ImI) an. e yIg nwgs ikS al M Gitel IE pñkK nø wH K ImIvi Tü aenA C M BUkT I 8. K ImIviTü aG nuv tþn _ (Chemistry in Action) enA T MB½ r 2-37 BiBN ’naB IbME NgE ck én F at u enA elIE pnd I ni genA kñ úgx ø Ünm nusS .

5 m:UelKulnigGIuy:ug kñúg cMe Nam F a tu TaM gG s; m a nE t]sµ½ nkM r 6 b :ue NÑ aH enA kñúgR k um 8A én tar agx Yb K W F a t u He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe n i g Rn E dlm anG t ißP aBC a G atUm e Tal enA kñ úgF mµC a ti. sMrab ; eh t u plenH e TIb vaR tUv) aneK e hA fa]sµ½ n mmmm :: :: UN UG a t UmUN UG a t UmUN UG a t UmUN UG a t Um m ann½ yf aG a tUm E tmY y. rUb F atuP aK eR cIn K Wb gáeL Ige da ym :U elK ul b¤ GIuy :ugE dlb e gáI te da yG a tU m . 5>1 m:UelKul

mmmm :: :: Ue lUe lUe lUe l K ulK ulK ulK ul K WC ab NþúMm YyE d lm anG a tUm y :ag ti ccM nYnB IrE d lm ank arero b c MkM Nt ;ed ay cg P¢ab ;K ñ aed ay kMl aMgK Im I ¬ eK [ eQ µaH fasMB ½n§K Im I¦. tam c, ab ;s m am aR tkM N t; m : UelK u l mYyG acm anG a tUm énF at udU cK ña b¤k¾G at Um énF a tuB Ir rW eR cInC ag tP¢ ab ;K ña kñú gpleFo b kMN t;mY y ¬emIlE pñ k 1>2¦. dUec ñH ta m niym n ½y m :UelK u lmYyE dlminc aM) ac;C as m as F at uR tUv) a nb eg á It eL IgBIF a tuB Ir rWeR cI nC ag. C a]Tah rN _]sµ½ nGIuR d UE s n K WC aF atus uT §mYy b :uE nþ vaC a m :UelK ulE d l b gáeL IgBIG at Um GuIR d ÚE s ncM nYnBI r. mü :agv ij eTo tTw k K WC as m as F at um :Ue lK ulmY y E dlm an GIuR dUE s nn igGuks IuE s nk ñúgp leFo b GIuR dUE s nBIrG at Um ni gGuksIuE s nmY yG a tUm . dU ceTA nw gG at Um E dr m :UelK u lm anb n ÞúkG K Á is nINW t. m :UelK ulG IuR dUE s n E dlR t Uv ) ans res rC animi tþs B aØ a H2 R tUv) aneK [ eQ µaH f a mmmm :: :: Ue lK ulUe lK ulUe lK ulUe lK ul

D IG at UmD IG at UmD IG at UmD IG at Um BIeR BaH vam anE tG a tU m BIr. F at udé Te To tE d lC aF mµtam anG t ßiP aBC am :U e lK ulDIG at Um enaH K W N2 ni g O2

k¾d UcC a F atue nA R kum 7 A dUcC a F2, Cl2, Br2 nig I2. C ak arBi tm :Ue lK ulD I G atUm G a cm anG a tUm é nF a tu BIrx us K ña ]T ah rN _dU cC a HCl nig CO.

CMB UkTI2

2-15

m :UelK ulP aK eR cInm anG a tU m eR cInC agBI r. v aG acC aG a tUm énF atu dU cK ña dUcC aG UsUn (O3)

C aedIm E dlb gá eL IgB IG a tUm Guks IuE s ncM nYnb Ib¤G acC ab nSMénF at ux us K ñaB Irb¤eR c In . m :UelK ul E dlm anG a tUm eR cI nC agB IrR tUv) a neK ehA eQ µaH mmmm :: :: Ue l K ul bUe l K ul bUe l K ul bUe l K ul b :: :: Ul IG at UmUl IG at UmUl IG at UmUl IG at Um .... dUcGUsUnE d r Tw knig G am :Uj : ak;K WC am :Ue lK ulb :U lIG atUm . 5>2 m:UelKulKMrU

m :UelK ulK W tU cN as ;sM rab ;e yIgs e gá ted ayp Þal ;. m eFü a) ayd ¾m anR b si T§Pa Bed Im ,I emIl va K W eda yk areR bIm : UelK u lK MrU. R b ePTsþg ;da BIr én m :UelK ulK M rUE d lkMB ugE teR bIR ) as ;s BVé f¶e nH K WK MrUR K ab ;) a l;cg áwH rW (ball- and- stick) n igK Mr UbMeBj kE nøg (space- filling)¬rUb9¦ .

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 9999 K MrK MrK MrK Mr UR K abUR K abUR K abUR K ab ;; ;; )))) a la la la l ;; ;; ---- cgáwHcgáwHcgáwHcgáwH (ball-and-stick) n igK Mr UbMe Bj kE nøgn igK Mr UbMe Bj kE nøgn igK Mr UbMe Bj kE nøgn igK Mr UbMe Bj kE nøg(space-

filling)énménménménm :: :: Ue lK uls am B aØx øUe lK uls am B aØx øUe lK uls am B aØx øUe lK uls am B aØx ø HHHH

enA kñúgK MrUR K ab ;) al; -cg áwH G atUm K WC aR K ab ;) al; eFVIB IeQ IIb¤ BIC ½rE dlm anr n§. cg áwH eQ Ir W rWus½ r

R tUv) an eR bIta g[ sMB½ n§K ImI. mMuE dl eK b egáI teL Ig rva gG atUm K WR b h ak;R b E h lK ñan w gmMusMB ½n§ kñúg m :UelK ulB itE d r. R K ab ;) a l;m an TMhM dUcK ñ a eh IyR b e PTénG a tUm n ImY y² R tUv) a n tage da yB N’ eda yE L k.


2-16

enA kñúgK MrUbM eBj kE nø g G a tUm R tU v) an tag ed ayk MN at ; ) al;t P¢ab ;K ñae da yR b dab ; c gf<k ; dUec ñH sMB½n §minG a cemIleX I j ) aneT. TMhMR K ab ;) al;K W s m am aR teTA n wgT MhMrb s ;G atUm .

K MrUR K ab ;) al ;- cgá wH b gðaj y : agc,as ;BI kar tM ero b G at Um C a TMrg ;vim aR tbI ehI yva ga yR sYl b egáI tK Yrs m . b :uE nþR K ab ;) a l;mins m am aR teTA n wgT MhMé nG atUm . e lIs BI enH cgáw H eQ IE vgC ag cenø aH rvagG at Um enA kñ úgm :U e lK uly :ageR c In. K MrUbM eB j cenøaH K WC a k;l ak;C ag B Ie R BaH vab gðaj B I bME rbMrYl TMhMG at Um . r Ub pÁM ú; rb s ;vaR t Uvk areB levl akñ úg kar dak ;vaP ¢ab ;K ña ehIy va ) anminb gð aj TIt aMg vim aR tbIrb s ;G a tUm ) a nl¥e T. ey Ign wgeR bIK Mr UT aMg BIrenH y:a geR cIn kñú gem ero ne nH . 5>3 GIuy:ug

G IuyG IuyG IuyG Iuy :: :: ugugugug K WC aR b ePTm anb n Þúk mYyE dlk ekI teL I gBIG a tUm b¤m :UelK ul NW tmYy enA eBl E dl eG L icR tug) anc MeNj b¤ ) at;b g ;ed aybME rbMrY lK Im I. cMnYnR bU tugE d lm anb nÞ úk viC ¢m ane nA kñú g éNV y:U énG a tUm mY yenA E t rk S atM éldE d lkñ úgeBlE dlm anbME rbMr YlK ImIF mµ ta ¬eK e hA faR b tikm µ K ImI¦ b :uE nþ eG L icR t ugE dlm a nb nÞúkG v iC ¢m anG acx a t b¤cM eNj .

kar) a t;b g ;eG L icR tugmY yb¤ eR cInBIG atUm NW tna MeG a yek I tC a k a c ugk a c ugk a c ugk a c ug E dlC aGIuy:u g m an b nÞúkv iC ¢m an . ]T ah rN _ G a tUmNaG ac) a t;eG L i cR tu gmY y edIm , Ikø a yeTA C ak ac ugsU dü Úm E dleK s res rt age da y Na+.

G atUm Na GIu y:u g Na+

11 R bUtug 11 R bUtu g 11 eG L icR tug 10 eG L icR tug

mü :agvij e To t G a jG a jG a jG a j :: :: úgúgúgúg K WC aGIuy :ugmY yE dlb n Þúks rub rb s ;va K WG v iC ¢m ane da ys a rE tcM n Yn eG L icR tug ekIn eL Ig. ] Ta h rN_ G a tUm k ørG a ccMe Nj eG L icR tugm Yye dIm ,I kø aye T A C aGIuy: ugk ør ( Cl-) .

G atUm Cl GIu y:ug Cl-

17 R bUtug 17 R bUtu g 17 eG L icR tug 18 eG L icR tug

GMbils mø (NaCl)R tUv) an eK ehA fa C as m as F at uGIuyC as m as F at uGIuyC as m as F at uGIuyC as m as F at uGIuy :: :: u gu gu gu g BIeR BaH vaR t Uv) anb e gáI te L IgB I kacu gnigG aj :ú g.

CMB UkTI2

2-17

G atUm mY yG ac) at ;b g;b¤ cMe Nj eG L icR t ugmY yb¤eR cI n ]T ah rN _énGI uy :ugE d lkekI t eL Iged ay kar) at ;b¤c MeNj e G L icR tugeR c InC agm YyK WGI u y:u g Mg2+, Fe3+ ,S2- nig N-3. GIuy: ug TaM genH k¾ dUcC aGIu y:u g Na+ nig Cl- E d r K WeK [ ehA fa G IuyG IuyG IuyG Iuy :: :: ug mug mug mug m :: :: UN UG a t UmUN UG a t UmUN UG a t UmUN UG a t Um BIeR BaH va m anE tG a tUm mYy. rUb10b g ðaj BIb nÞú kr b s ;GIuy :ugm : UN UG a tUm mY ycMn Y n. elIkE lg krN ImY ycM nY ntU celah ³ m anTM ena rb egá ItC a kac ug c ME NkÉG el ah ³m anT Men arb e gáI tC aG aj : úg.

b E nßm elIenH eTo t G atUm B I b¤eR cInG ac pSMK ñ aed Im ,Ib egá It C aGIuy :ugm Yy E dlm a nb nÞú k s rub viC ¢m anb¤G v iC ¢m an . G IuyG IuyG IuyG Iuy :: :: ug bug bug bug b :: :: Ul IG at UmUl IG at UmUl IG at UmUl IG at Um dUcC aGIu y: ug OH- , CN-,nig NH +

4 K WC aGIu y:u gE dlm a n G atUm eR c InC agmY y.

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 9 9 9 9 GuIy :ugm : UN UG at Um s m BaØ² E d l) anero b cMG aR s½y eTA t am TIt aMg rb s ;v aenA kñ úg tar agx Y b . cUrk t;s MK al; fa GI uy :ug) a rt m anG at Um2 ¬ Hg +2

2 ¦.

6 rUbmnþKImI GñkK ImIeR bI r Ub m n þK Imr Ub m n þK Imr Ub m n þK Imr Ub m n þK Im I edIm ,I b gðaj BIb nS MrWs m as PaBé n m :UelK ul nigs m as F atuG Iu y:u gk ñúg n½yC a nimi tþs B aØ aK ImI. e da yb nSMen aH ey IgminE m ncg;n iy ayE teTA el IE tF a tupSMb :ue NÑaH e T b :uE nþe yIgE fm TaM gcg; ni ya y BIpleFo b rb s ;G a tUm E dlr Y m pSMpgE dr. enA T IenH e yI gsikS a rUb m n þ BIrR b ePT K Wr Ub m nþm : UelK ul nigr Ub m nþg ay. 6>1 rUbmnþm:UelKul r Ub m nþmr Ub m nþmr Ub m nþmr Ub m nþm :: :: Ue lK ulUe lK ulUe lK ulUe lK ul b gðaj cM nYnB i tR ) akd énG a tUm rb s ;F at unI mYy² enA k ñúgx ñ at d¾ tUcb Mpu t rb s ; s arF a tumY y. enA k ñúgk arB i PakS a rb s ;e yIgB Im :Ue lK ul ]Tah r N_ nImY y² R tUv) a n pþl;[ C amY y


2-18

rUb m nþm : UelK ul rb s ;va enA kñ ú gvg;R kc k. d Uec ñH H2 K W C arUb m nþm : UelK uls Mr ab ;GIuR d U E s n O2K WC a GuksIuE s n O3K WC aGUsUn e hIyH2OK WC aT wk. s nÞsS n_E dls res rC aelx K Wb Ba¢ ak;B IcM nYnG a t Um énF at upSM. cMeB aH O K µa n elx s nÞsS n_e TenA k ñúg H2O BIeR BaH m anE tG at Um Guk sIuE s nmYyK t ; enA kñúgm :UelK ulT wk d Uec ñH elx mYyrb s ; vaR t Uv) a ndke cj BIrUb m n þm :Ue lK ul. c Ur kt;s MK al; f a GuksIuE s n (O2) ni gGUsUn (O3) K WC aF a tum an TM rg;eR c I nrb s ;Guks IuE s n. v is m rUbv is m rUbv is m rUbv is m rUb (allotrope)

K WTMr g;E bøk² K ñ amYy rWeR c Inr b s ;F atumY y. TM rg;v is m rUb BIrb s ;k abUnK We BR C nigR kahV I tx us K ña y: ag x øaMgmi nR twm E tl kç N³K ImIrb s ;vab :u eN ÑaH eTK WE fm Ta Mgéf ø x us K ñaeTo tpg. 6>2 rUbmnþgay rUb m nþm : UelK ul énGIuR d UE s nE BrGuksI ut E dlC as arF a tu mYyeK eR bIC af ña MsMlab ;mIR ku b nig C aPñak ;ga rla gsMG a tsM rab ; vay nPNÐ nigs k;en aH K WH2O2. rUb m nþenH b Ba¢a k;f a m :UelK ul GIuR dUE s nE BrGu ksIu tnIm Yy² m anpÞú kG a tUm GIuR d UE s nBI rni gG atUm Gu ksIuE s nB Ir. pl eFo b énG atUm GIuR dUE s nn igGuks IuE s nenA k ñú gm :UelK u lenaH K W2:2b¤1:1. rUb m nþg ay énGI uR dUE s nE BrGuksI utK W HO. dU ecñH r Ub m n þg a yr Ub m n þg a yr Ub m n þg a yr Ub m n þg a y R ) ab ;eyI gBIF a tupS Mm :Ue lK ulen a H nigBIpleFo b cM nYnG at Um s rub ga ybMpu t b :uE nþmin caM) ac;B IcM nYnB itR ) a k dénG a tUm enA kñúgm :UelK ulen aH eT. ]T ah N_mY yepS g eTo tK We yIg Bini tü emIls m as F a tuGI uR da sIun (N2H4) E dlR t Uv) a neK eR bIC a\ n§n³k aMR C Yc. r U b m nþga yén GIuR dasI unK W NH2 . ebIe TaH bIC apleFo b énG asU tni gGIu R dUE s nK W 1:2 TaMg enA kñ úgr Ub m nþm :UelK ul

(N2H4) TaM genA kñ úgr Ub m nþ gay (NH2) K Wm a nE tr Ub m nþm :UelK uleTE dlR ) ab ;e yI gGMBIc MnYn Bi t R ) akdénG atUm N (BI r) ni g G atUm H (bYn) E d lm anenA kñúgm : UelK U lGIuR d asIu n.

r Ub m nþg a yr Ub m nþg a yr Ub m nþg a yr Ub m nþg a y KWC arUb m nþK I mIE dls am Ba ØbMpu tE dlR t Uv ) aneK s res r vae da yb nß y s nÞsS _ enA kñúg rUb m nþm :UelK uleTA C a rUb m nþE dlm anc MnYns rub t Uc bMput. r Ub m n þmr Ub m n þmr Ub m n þmr Ub m n þm :: :: Ue l K UlUe l K UlUe l K UlUe l K Ul K WC arUb m nþB it R ) akdrb s ;m : UelK u l . eyIgn wg) a neX Ij enA kñúgC MBUk TIbI enA eBlE d lGñkK ImI viP aK s m as F a t u minTa n;sÁ al;m Yy C aF mµ taC M h andMb UgK Wk ark MN t; rUb m nþ gay rb s ;s m as F a tue naH . sMrab ;m : UelK u lC aeR cI n rUb m nþm :Ue lK uln igr Ub m nþga yK WC ar Ub m nþE tmY ye hIyd UcK ñ a. ]Tah r N_ dUcC a H2O, NH3, CO2 nigCH4 C aedIm . ]Tah r N_B Irx a geR kam enH K W vaT ak; Tge TA niw gka rs res rrU b m nþm :UelK u lBIK M rUm :U elK ul n ig kars r es rr Ub m nþg ayB IrUb m nþm :Ue lK ul.

CMB UkTI2

2-19

cMN aM B akü rUb m nþ ga y (empirical) m ann ½ yfaC arUb m nþE dld kR s g;t am Bies aF n_. e yIg n wg eX Ij vaenA C MB Yk TI3 E dl rUb m nþga yK Wk MN t;e da yka rBi e s aF n_.

em ta Nul kør: Upm

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 1 01 01 01 0 ]Tah r N_ 1 / 2 cUrs r es rrUb m nþm :UelK u lénem ta Nu l E dlC aF atu rMl a ys rI rag Á nigC a

F atuR b q aMg nwg kMN k BIK M rUR K ab ;) al; -cg áwH d Uck ñúg rUb . cMelI y m anG at Um kabU nmY y G a tUm GIuR dUE s nbYn nigG at Um Guk sIuE s nmYy . d UecñH r Ub m n þ

m :UelK ul rb s ;vaK W CH4O. b :uE nþt am viFIs þg; dak ñúg ka rs res r rUb m nþm : UelK u lsMr a b ;em ta NulK W CH3OH BIeR BaH vab gð aj BIr ebo b énG atUm n ImYy² c gsM B½n§e nA kñú gm :Ue lK ul. lMh at ;G nu vt þn_ s res rr Ub m nþm : UelK ul én kør: Upm E d lR tUv) aneK eR bIC aF at urM la y n igPñ ak ;ga r sMG at. K M rUR K ab ;) a l;- cgá wH r b s ;kør :Upm K Wd Ucm a nb gðaj kñú grUb .

]Tah r N_ 1 /3 cUrs r es rrUb m n þga ysMr ab ;m : UelK u ldUc te TA enH k> G aes rIE L n (C2H2) E dlR tÚv) an eK eR bIR ) as ;enA kñ úgR b dab ;pS ar x > K øúyK Us(C6H12O6) E dlC as arF a t u sárenA k ñúgQ am) nig K > Gu ksIu tG asU t(N2O) E dlC a] sµ½neFI VeG a ys <w kni gC aG aeG r:Usu l.

cMelI y k> enA kñúgG aes TIE L nm anG a tUm kabUnB Ir ni gG atUm GI uR dUE s nB Ir. ed ay E ck s nÞsS n_n igBI r e yIg TT Yl) a nrUb m nþg a y CH. x > enA kñúg køú yk Us m anG a tU m kabUnc MnY n6 G a tUm GI uR dUE s ncMnY n 12 nigG at Um GuksIuE s nc MnY n6. eda yE c ks nÞsS n_ nwg 6 e yIg TTY l) anr Ub m nþga y CH2O. cUrk t;sMK a l ; R b sinebIey IgE cks n ÞsS n_n w g3 ey Ignw gT TYl) a nrUb m nþ C2H4O2. ebIeTaH bIC apleFo b én G atUm k abUnGI uR dUE s n nigGu ksIuE s nenA k ñúg C2H4O2 dUcK ñae TA nwgpl eFo b kñúge nA kñú g C6H12O6

(1:2:1)k¾e da y C2H4O2minE m nC arUb m nþg ayC a geK b g¥ s ;eT BIeR B aH s nÞsS n_ rb s ;v aminE m nsßi t enA kñúg pleFo b cMn Yns rub tU cC ageK b g¥s ;e T.

ka bUn

GIuR dUE s n

GuksIuE s n

kør


2-20

K> edays ar s nÞsS n_e nA kñú gm :Ue lK ul N2O m ancMn YnpleFo b s rub tU c bMputr Yce TA ehIy d Uec ñH rUb m nþg ay rb s ; GukGIu tG asU t K Wd UcK ñ anwg rUb m nþm :UelK ulrb s ;v a.

lMh at ;G nu vt þn_ c Urs res rr U b m nþga ysMr ab ;k aehVGI un(C8H10N4O2)C aE dlC aF at uePJ acrk eX Ij enA kñ úgE tn igk aehV.

C aF mµta rUb m nþ rb s ;s m as F atuG Iu y:u gdU cK ñan wgr Ub m nþg ay rb s ;vaE d r eR BaH s m as F at u GIuy :ugmi nm an Ékt am :UelK ul Nal ak;) aMge naH eT. ]T ah rN _ PaK sM Nak rwg rb s ;sUdü Úm k ør Y (NaCl)m an cMn Ynesµ IK ñaé nGIu y:u g Na+ nigGI uy :ug kør Cl- tMe ro b C ab Nþaj v im aR tbI(rUb11). enA kñú g s m as F atu dUc enH K Wm anp leFo b kacug nigG aj :uú g1:1 dU ecñH s m as F a tue naH m a nb nÞúkG K Á is n I NWt . d UcGñ kG aceX Ij vae nA kñúg rUb11 K WK µanGI uy :ug Na+ enA kñ úgNaClNamY yR tU v ) anpSMC amY y GIuy :ug Cl- mYy ed ayE L ke naH eT. k arB itGI uy :ug Na+ nImYy² K W cgesµ I² K ñae da y GIuy :ugk ør Cl- cMnY n 6 enA C Mu vij b¤R cas m kvij . dUec ñH NaCl K WC a rU b m nþga ysMr ab ;sU dü Úm kør Y. enA kñúgs m as F atuGI uy :ug epS g² eTo t TM rg; BitR ) ak drb s ; vaG a cx us K ña b :uE nþk ar tMero b k acu gnigG aj :ú gkññ úgs m a s F atu TaM gen aH m anb nÞú kG K Áis nINW t TaM gG s ;. cU rcM NaM fab nÞ úkenA e lIk acu gnigG aj :ú gminR tU v) a n b gðaj enA k ñúg rUb m nþs Mrab ;s m as F atuG Iu y:u geT. edIm ,I[ s m as F a tuG Iu y:u gm a nb nÞúkG K Á is nI NW t luH R t aE tplbUkb n Þú kelI kac ugn igG aj :úg esµIsUnü ebIsinC ab nÞú kelI kacu gnigG aj :ú gm anb n Þúkx u s K ña e yIgR tUveFV It am k,Ü nd U cte TA enH edIm , I eFVI[ b nÞú krb s ;v am anb n ÞúkG K Áis nI NWt ³ s nÞsS n _rb s ; ka cugm an cMn Yn es µIK ña eTA nw gb nÞúk elIG aj :úg ehIys n ÞsS n_ rb s ;G aj : úgR tU vm ancM nYn esµIK ñ aeTA n wgb nÞ úke nA elIk acug . R b sinebIb n Þúk m ancMn Yne s Iµ K ña dU ecñH s nÞsS n_min caM) ac; m aneT. k,Ün enH eFIV dUec ñH eR BaH rUb m nþ rb s ;s m as F a tuGI u y:u gK WC ar Ub m n þ gay E dls n ÞsS n_eK R t Uv) anb nß y[ m kpleFo b tU cbM put. cU re yIgB ica rN aeTA e lI]T ah r N _ mYycM nYn dUcx ageR kam ÷ - b :U tasü Úm R bUmY (KBr): kacu gb :U tasü Úm K+ nigG a jú:gR bUmY Br- pSMK ñ aed Im ,Ib e gáI tC a s m as F atuG Iu y:ugb :U tasü Úm R bUmY. plbUkb n Þú kK W +1+(-1) = 0 dU ecñH s nÞsS n_min caM) a c;m a ne T dUce nH rUb m nþ rb s ;vaK W KBr .

- s ½g ásIGI uy :UD Y (ZnI2): kacu g Zn2+ nigG aj ú:g I- pSMK ñae dIm ,Ib e gáI t (s ½gás IGIu y:U DY). plbUkb nÞ úkénG Iu y:u g Zn2+ nigGIu y:u g I- K W 2+(-1)=+1. edIm ,I[ b nÞ úkes µIsU nü eyI gR tUvE tK u N

CMB UkTI2

2-21

b nÞúk -1é nG aj : úgn wg2 ehI yb E nßm s nÞsS n _ 2 eTA el I nimit þs Ba ØasM rab ;G uI y:U t d Uecñ H rUb m nþsMr ab ; s½gásIGI uy :UD Y K W ZnI2. - G alu ymIj :Úm G uksIu t: ka cugK W Al3+ ehIyG aj :ú gGu ksIuE s nK W O2- . dü aR ka m x ag eR kam enH G a cC Yye yIg[ k MN t;s n ÞsS n_s Mrab ; s m as F atuE d lb egá IteL Ige da yka cugn ig G aj :úg. plbUkénb n Þúk Ta MgG s ;K W 2(+3)+3(-2)=0 . dUe cñH rUb m n þ G aluym Ij :Úm Gu ksIu tK W Al2O3.

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (a) T Mr gT Mr gT Mr gT Mr g ;; ;; é né né né nNaClrwgrwgrwgrwg (b) k a r Bit k a cugk a r Bit k a cugk a r Bit k a cugk a r Bit k a cug bbbb :: :: HHHH C amYy G ajC amYy G ajC amYy G ajC amYy G aj :: :: úgúgúgúg . . . . T a MgT a MgT a MgT a Mg kñúgkñúgkñúgkñúg (a) n ign ign ign ig k ñúgk ñúgk ñúgk ñúg (b) E sVr t Uc E sVr t Uc E sVr t Uc E sVr t Uc C agC agC agC ag ta geG a yta geG a yta geG a yta geG a y GIuyGIuyGIuyGIuy :: :: ugugugug Na+ n igE s VrF MC agn igE s VrF MC agn igE s VrF MC agn igE s VrF MC ag ta geG a yta geG a yta geG a yta geG a y GIuyGIuyGIuyGIuy :: :: ugugugug Cl-

7 karehAeQµaHsmasFatu

enA eBlE dlK ImIv iTü a enA C a viTü as aR sþ eTIb e kI teL Ig e hIyc MnYns m as F at uE dlR t U v) an eK sÁal;m ancM nYn ti c vaG ac gayR sYl cgc aMv a. eQ µ aH mYycM nYn) anm kB IrUb ragx a g eR kA lkçN³ edIm k MeN It rWk areR bIR ) as ; rb s ;va . ] Tah r N_ dUcC a T wk edaH eK am a :ej sü Úm ]sµ½ nsM eNIc fµk Me) a r sUda ka t;sU da dut Tw kk,ú g nig s UdasM rab ; lags MG atC aed I m . s BVéf¶ enH cMn Yns m as F a tuE dlR tU v) aneK sÁ al;m anc MnYn C ag13lan. C as MN agl¥ vam in caM) a c;eQ µ aH rb s ;v a. C a eR cInqña Mm kenH Gñ kK ImI) a nb egáI tR b B½n§ c,as ; las ;s Mr a b ;ehA eQ µaH


2-22

s arF a tuK ImI. ehI yc, ab ;e naH R tUv) a nT TYls Áal ;TU lM TU layE d lsMr YlT Mna k; TMng kñ ú gcMe Nam Gñk K ImI nigp þl;n Uvm eFü a) a yd ¾m ans ar³R b e yaC n _da k;sø ake G ays a rF at ud ¾eR cIn enH . edIm ,I cab ;ep þIm k arB iPakS arb s ;eyI gBI kar da k;eQ µ aH K ImI karehA eQ µ aH s m as F at uK I mI C a dMbUge yI gR tUvE tE b gE ckrv a gs m as F at us rI rag ÁnigG s rI ragÁ . s m as F a tus rIr agÁE d lm ank abUn E dlC aF mµt apSMC amY yF a tu dU cC aGuIiR dUE s n G as Ut Guks Iu E s n nigs < an ;F½r. s m as F atu dé TeTo t TaM gG s ;R tÚv) aneK c at ;fñ ak ;C as m as F at uG s rI rag Á. b :uE n:þsM rab ; PaBg ayR sY ls m as F atum a n kabUnx øH dUcC akab Unm :U NUGu ksIu t(CO) kabU nDIG uksI ut (CO2) kabUnDIs ‘ulP It (CS2) s m as F a t u E dlm anb gÁ úMsü aN U (CN-) b gÁúMk abUN a t CO −2

3 nwgb gÁ úMbI kabUN at (HCO−3 ) R tUv) ane K cat; Tu k

faC as m as F a tuG s r Ir agÁ. eTaH bIC aka rd ak; eQ µaH s m as F atus rIr agÁ nwgmi nR tU v ) aneK BiP akS a rhUt dl;C M BUk24k¾e da y k¾e yIgn wgeR bIs m as F a tus rI ragÁx øH edIm ,Ib g ðaj BI eK al kar N_K ImI kñú g eso vePA enH E dr. edIm ,Ie ro b cMn igeFV I[ kar ga rr b s ;eyI gga yR sYlk ñúg kar d ak;eQ µ aH s m as F at uen aH eyIg G acE cks m as F a tuG s r Ira gÁ C abYnR kum K W s m as F a tuGI u y:u g s m as F at u m :Ue lK ul G asIu tnig) as nigGuIR da t. 7>1 smasFatuGIuy:ug enA kñúgE p ñk5 e yIg) ane ro nrYcm k ehI yfa s m as F a t uG Iuys m as F a t uG Iuys m as F a t uG Iuys m as F a t uG Iuy :: :: ugugugug b gáeL Ig eda yk ac ug ¬GIu y:u gviC ¢m an¦ nigG aj :úg ¬GIu y:u gG viC ¢m a n¦. eda ym anka rel IkE lgd ¾sMx a n;énG Iu y:u g G am :Uj :Úm

NH4+ kacugT aMgG s ;E dl pþl;c MN ab ;G arm µN_ dl ;ey Ig ) anm kBIG a tUm e lah ³. kacu gelah ³

ykeQ µ aH rb s ;va ecj BIF at u TaM genaH . ] Tah rN_³ Fatu eQµaHkacug Na sUdü Úm Na+ GIuy :ugs Udü Úm ¬b¤ kac ug sUdü Úm ¦ K b :Ut asü Úm K+ GIuy: ugb :U tasü Úm ¬b¤k acug b :Ut asü Úm ¦ Mg m : aej sü Úm Mg2+ GIuy: ugm : aej sü Úm ¬b¤k acugm : aej sü Úm ¦ Al G aluym Ij :Úm Al 3+ GIuy: ugG al uym Ij :Úm ¬b¤ kacu gG alu ymIj :Úm ¦ s m as F atuG Iu y:ugC aeR cInK WC a s m as F a tue T VF a t us m as F a tue T VF a t us m as F a tue T VF a t us m as F a tue T VF a t u b¤C as m as F at uE dlb egá It eL IgBIF a tuE t BIrb :u eNÑ aH . sM rab ;s m as F atue TVF a tu F at ud MbUgK WR t Uv ) aneK [ eQ µaH f aC aka cug e lah ³E dlb n þ

CMB UkTI2

2-23

eda yG aj : úgG el ah ³. d Ue cñH NaCl K WC asU dü Úm(k ørY). eK dak ;eQ µaH G aj :úg e da y ykE pñk dMbU g éneQ µaH rb s ;F at ukø rehI yb E nßm eda yGY. b :U tasü Úm R bUmY (KBr), s ½gás IGIu y: UDY (ZnI2) ni g G aluym Ij :Úm Gu ksIu t (Al2O3) k¾C as m as F atu eT VF at uE dr. ta rag2 b gð aj BIn am v lIGYénG aj :úg m :UNUG at Um mYy cMn Ynt am T It aM grb s ;va enA kñ úgt ar agx Yb . karb Ba© b ; eda yGY k¾R t Uv) an e K eR bIpgE drsMr ab ;b gÁ MúG aj :úg x øH E dlm anF at ux us K ña d Uc C ab g ÁúM (OH-) ni gGIu y: ugsü aN Y (CN-). dUe cñH s m as F a tu LiOH nig KCN R tUv) a neK [ e Q µaH fal IcUm GIuR duks Iu t nigb : Ut asü Úm sü aNY. s m as F a tu TaM genH ni gs m as F at uGIu y:u gd UcenH dé Tx øH eTo t R tUv ) aneK [ eQ µaH f a s m as F at uR tIF a ts m as F at uR tIF a ts m as F at uR tIF a ts m as F at uR tIF a tu. tar ag3ra y eQ µaH eTA t am G kçrR km énk a cugn igG aj : úg mYycM nYn . elah ³x øH C aBies s e lah ³ qøg G acb egá IteL IgR b ePT kacu geR cInC agmY y. ]T a h rN _ dUcC aE d k E dkG acb eg áI tk a cug) an BIr K Wk acu g Fe2+ nig kacu gFe3+. R b B½næn am vlI cas ;) a nkM nt ; eG aye yI gehA eQ µaH énk ac u gE dlm anb nÞ úkv iC © m ant icC a gfa GW “- ous” ehI yk a cugm anb n Þú k viC © m aneR cInC agf aG uic “- ic” :

Fe2+ GIuy :ugE hVr W (ferrous ion)

Fe3+ GIuy :ugE hVr ic (ferric ion)

eQ µaH éns m as F a tuE dlG Iu y:u gE dkenH b eg áI tC amY yGIu y:u gkø rG acC a FeCl2, FeCl3. viFIs aR sþé nka rehA eQ µaH GIu y:u genH m ank ar kMn t;x us K ñ ax ø H . C adMbU gb c© ½yb TGWni gG ui cmin) anp þl ; eG ayn UvB t’m a nBIb nÞ úkB itR ) akd rb s ;ka cuge naH eT . dU e cñH GIuy :ugE hV ric (ferric ion) K W Fe3+

b :uE nþk acug Tg ;E dg (Cu2+) ehA fa K Upr ic (Cupric) . minE tb :ue NÑ aH kak M Nt;b c© ½yb T G WnigGi ucpþ l;eQ µ aH sMrab ;E t kacu gx us K ñaB Iré nF at umY yb :ue NÑaH . F at uel ah ³x øH G ac s nµt fa m an b nÞúkv iC © m anbIr WeR cInC agx us ² K ñaenA kñ úgs m as F a tu. dU ecñH vak an ;E tR tU v) aneK n iym kñúg kar kMn t;B I ebo b ehA eQ µaH kacugx us ² K ñ aed ayeR bIe lx r:Um uaM g E dle K ehA faR b B½næ Stock. enA kñúgR b B½n æenH elx r:Umu aMg I esµ Inwgb n Þúk viC © m ancM nYnmY y eh I y II esµI nwg b nÞúkv iC © m ancM nYnB Ir. l.

b nþeTA enH K WC aeQ µ aH rb s ;s m as F atum anb nÞ úkv iC öm aneR cInK Ws m as F a tum :g;k aE NsII

GuksIu t MnO m :g;k aE NsIII G uksI ut n igm :g ;kaE Ns IV GuksIu t. e da yeR bIR b B½n§ Stock eyIg s res reL Ig vij n UvGIu y: ugE hV rW nigG Iu y:u gE hVric eTA C aE d kII n igE dkIII e ro gK ña. d Uec ñH GIuy :ug Fe2+

R b tikmµC amY yGIu y: ug Cl- ) a nC aE dkII k ø rY ehI yGI uy :ug Fe3+ R b tikmµC amYyG Iu y:u g Cl- ) anC aE d k


2-24

III k ø rY . kñ úgk arr kS ak arG n uv tþT Men Ib ey Ign wgeBj c it þeh A eQ µaH s m as F atu tam R b B½n § Stock enA kñúgem e ro nenH . ]Tah r N_x a geR kam e nH b gða j BIrebo b ehA eQ µaH éns m a s F atuGI uy :ug n igs r es rr Ub m n þ m :UelK ul éns m aF a tuGu Iy :ug edayE p¥ keTA e lIB t’m a nE dlpþl ;[ enA kñ úgr Ub TM B½r2-18 nigenA kñ úg tar ag 2 ni g 3. tar ag 2 nam vl IGYénG aj :ú g m :UNUG at Um s m BaØx øH t am T It aMgrb s ; vae nA kñú gt ara gx Yb Rkum 4A Rkum 5A Rkum 6A Rkum 7A

C kabY * (C4-)

Si sIulIsY(Si4-)

N NIR t Y (N3-)

P pUsVÜrY (P3-)

O GuksIu t (O2-)

S s‘ulPI t (S2-)

Se es lINY (Se2-)

Te ét lYr Y (Te2-)

FPøú yG r Y (F-)

Cl kørY (Cl-)

Br R bUmY (Br -)

I G Iu y:U dY (I-) * Bakü kabY k¾R t Úv) an eR bIcMe BaH G aj :úg C-2

2 pgE dr. tar ag3 eQ µ aH nigm : UelK ul énka cugn igG aj :úgG s r Ir agÁ s am BaØx øH kacug Gaj:úg G al uy mIj:Úm (Al3+)

G am :Uj:Úm (NH +4 )

) arü Úm (Ba2+)

k at;mJÚ:m (Cd2+)

k al ;sü Úm (Ca2+)

e ssü Úm (Cs+)

Rk Um :at III b ¤Rk Umic (Cr3+)

k U) al;II (Co2+)

T g ;Edg I (Cu+)

T g ;Edg II (Cu2+)

GIuR d UE s n (H+)

Edk II (Fe2+)

Edk III (Fe3+)

sMN II (Pb2+)

RbUmU (Br-)

k abUNat(CO −23 )

k ør :at (ClO−3 )

k ørY (Cl-)

Rk Um :at (CrO −24 )

sü aNY (CN-)

DIRk Um :at (Cr2O−2

7 )

DIGIuRdUE sn pUs Vat (H2PO−4 )

Pøúy G rY (F-)

GIuRdY (H-)

GIuRdUEsn k abUNatb¤b‘ Ík abUN at (HCO−3 )

GIuRdUEsn p UsV at (HPO −24 )

GuIRdUEsn s ‘ul patb¤b ‘Ís ‘ul pa t (HSO−4 )

GIuRduk sIut (OH-)

CMB UkTI2

2-25

l IcUm (Li +)

m :ae jsü Úm (Mg2+)

m :g ;k aENs II(Mn2+)

) ar t I (Hg +22 )

) ar t II (Hg2+)

b:Utasü Úm (K+)

R) ak ; (Ag+)

sUdü Úm (Na+)

Rsþg ;cUm (Sr2+)

sMN) :ahaMg (Sn2+)

s½gá sI (Zn2+)

GIuy :UdY (I-)

nIRtat (NO−3 )

nIRtY (N3-)

nIRtIt (NO −2 )

Guk sIut (O2-)

EBm :g ;k aNat (MnO−4 )

EBru:k sI ut (O −22 )

pUsVat (PO −34 )

s‘ul pat (SO −24 )

s‘ul pY (S2-)

s‘ul PIt (SO −23 )

sü Úsü aNat (SCN-)

]Tah r N_ 1 /4 cUr[ eQ µ aH s m as F atuG Iu y:u g dUc teTA ³ k> Cu(NO3)2 x > KH2PO4 nigK > NH4ClO3.

cMelI y k> edays arGI u y:u gnIR t at (NO−3 ) m anb nÞú kG viC ¢m anm Yy ¬ emIl tar a g3¦

ehIyGI uy :ug Tg;E d gR tUvE tm a nb nÞúk viC ¢m a nBIr dUe cñH s m a s F atue nH K WTg;E d g II nIR t a t. x > kacugenaH K W K+ ehIy G aj :úgK W H2PO−

4 ¬DIGI uR dUE s npUsV at ¦ eda ys a rE t b :Ut asü Úm b egáI tE tGI uy :ugmY y R b ePT (K+) dUec ñH minca M) a c;eR b Ib :U tasü Úm (I) k ñúgeQ µa H s m as F at u eT. s m as F a tuen aH K Wb :U ta sü Úm DIGIuR dUE s np UsV at. K > kacugenaH K WNH +

4 ¬GIuy :u gG am :Uj : Úm ¦ nigG aj :ú g ClO−3 dUecñH s m as F a t u

enaH K WG am :Uj :Úm k ør: at . lMh at ;G nu vt þn_ cUr[ eQ µ aH s m as F atu te TA e nH ³ k> PbO x > Li2SO3

]Tah r N_ 1 / 5 cUrs res rrUb m n þm :Ue lK ulsM rab ;s m as F a tu dUc te TA enH ³ k> ) art I nIR T It x > es süÚm s‘ulp Y Cs2S K > kal;sü Úm pUsV at. cMelI y k> GIu y:u g) ar t I K WGIu y: ugDIG at Um Hg +2

2 ¬cUr emI lta rag3¦ehI yGIu y: ugn IR TI tK W NO−2

dUec ñH rUb m nþ rb s ;vaK W Hg2(NO2)2.


2-26

x> GIuy:u gs‘u lpYn ImY y² m anb nÞ úkG viC ¢m anB Ir ehIyGI uy :uges sü Úm n ImY y² m an b nÞúkv iC ¢m anm Yy ¬es sü Úm K We nA kñúgR k um 1A dU csU dü Úm E dr ¦. dU ecñH r Ub m nþrb s ;v aK W Cs2S. K > GIuy:u gka l;sü Ú m nImYy² m a nb nÞú kviC ¢m anBI r ehIyG Iu y:u gpUsV at nImY y ²(PO −3

4 )m an b nÞúkG v iC ¢m anc MnY nbI. e dI m ,IeFVI[ plbU kb nÞú ks rub es µI sUnü eyI gR tU vE tt MrU vcM nYn kacu g ni g G aj :úg÷ 3(+2) + 2(-3) = 0

dUec ñH rUb m nþ rb s ;vaK W Ca3(PO4)2

lMh at ;G nu vt þn_ ³ c Urs res rr U b m nþm :UelK u lsMr ab ;s m as F atuGI uy :ug ÷ k> ruyb‘ Íj : Úm s‘ulp at x > ) ar:ü Úm GIuR d Y

7>2 smasFatum:UelKul mindU cs m as F a tuGIu y: uge T s m as F atum : UelK u lm an x ñatm : UelK ul da c;² BIK ñ a E dlC a F mµtaR t Uv) an eK pSMeL Ig BIF a tuG el ah ³ ¬emIl rUb 2>8¦. s m as F at um :UelK u lC aeR cInK WC a

s m ass m ass m ass m as F a t ue TVF a tuF a t ue TVF a tuF a t ue TVF a tuF a t ue TVF a tu. ka re hA eQ µaH s m as F atue TVF atu K WdUcK ñ ae TA nwgk arehA eQ µ aH s m as F a t u GIuy :uge TVF a tuE d r. e yIg da k;eQ µaH F a tu dMbUg kñú grUb m n þe nA x agedIm eh IyF a tu TIB IrR tUv) a neK d ak ; eQ µaH eda yb E nßm GYe TA E pñk x agcug énF a tuT IBI ren aH . ]Tah r N_ HCl GIuR dUE s nkø rY , HBr GI uR dUE s nR bUmY , SiC sIlIsü Úm kabY

tar ag4 buBVb Trb s ;R k icE d lR tUv) a neK eR bIkñ úgk arehA e Q µaH s m as F atum :UelK ul b uBVb uBVb uBVb uBV b Tb Tb Tb T k a rehA eQ µaHk a rehA eQ µaHk a rehA eQ µaHk a rehA eQ µaH

m :UNU 1

DI 2

R TI 3

etR ta 4

b :g;t a 5

Giics a 6

Gib ta 7

Gukt a 8

NUN a 9

edka 10

CMB UkTI2

2-27

vaK WC ak arn iym K Y rs m sMr ab ; K UénF at umY y E dlb egá Its m as F atux us ² K ñ amY ycMn Yn. kñúg krN IenH k arP ½nþR cL M kñú g karehA eQ µ aH s m as F at uR tU v) aneK eC o s vage da yk areR bIR ) as ;buBVb T rb s ;R kic ed Im ,IsMK al;B IcM nY nG atUm énF a tun ImYy² E d lm anv tþm an kñ úgm :Ue lK ul ¬cU remIl ta rag 2>4¦. cUrB ini tü emIl] Ta r h N_x ageR k am enH ³

CO kabUnm : UN UGuksI ut CO2 kabUn DIGuks Iu t SO2 s <an;F ½rD IGuksI ut SO3 s <an;F ½rR TIG uksI ut NO2 G asUt DIGuks Iu t N2O4 DIG asU te tR taG uksI ut karE Nn aMx a geR kam enH R t Uv ) aneK eR bIed Im ,IC Y ykñ ugk are hA eQ µaH s m as F atuC am Yy nwg

buBVb Trb s ; va³ - buBVb T “ m :U NU” G acR tUv) aneK rM lgsM rab ;F a tu dMbUg . ]Tah r N_ PCl3 R tUv) aneK ehA

fapUs VrR T Wkø rY m inE m nehA m :U NUpUs VrR T Ikø rYe T. dUe cñH ka r K µanbuBVb TsMr ab ;F a tu dMbUg en H C aTUeTA m a n n½y fam a nE tG a tUm mY yénF atu enaH E dlm a nenA k ñúgm : Uel K ulenaH .

- c MeBaH Guks Iu t k arb Ba© b ; e da y G ak ñúgb uBVeB lx øH R tUv) anrM lg. ]T ah rN _ N2O4 G ac R tUv) an eK ehA faD IG asU te tR tuks Iu t C aC agk arehA f a DI G asUte tR t aGuksI ut .

kare lIkE lg cMeB aH kar eR bIbu BVb TR kic K Ws m as F atum : UelK ulE dlm anG IuR dUE s n. C aTmøab ; s m as F a tu TaM g enH C aeR cInR t Uv) an eK ehA eda yeQ µaH Fø ab ;eR bImin tam k, Ün b¤ed ay eQ µaH E dlminb gð aj c MnYnG IuR dUE s nBi tR ) akd eT.

]Tah r N_ B2H6 DIb‘r:a n CH4 em tan SiH4 sIuL an NH3 G am :Uj :a k; PH3 pUsVIn H2O Twk H2S GIuR dUE s ns‘ ulpY r


2-28

cUrk t;s MK al; fal Md ab ;én ka r s res rF a tuenA kñúg rUb m nþm :Ue lK ulsMr ab ;s m as F a tuGI uR dU E s nK WmineTo t Ta t; eT.

enA kñúgm :UelK ulT wkn igGIuR d UE s ns‘ulp Y nimi tþs B aØ a H R tUv) a neK s res rmu n cME NkÉ s m as F atu déT² e To tK WR tUv ) aneK s res r enA x ageR k ay . kars r es rr Ub m nþc MeBaH s m a s F atum : UelK ulC aF mµt a K WeK s res rR tg ;eTA mux . dUec ñH eQ µaH s m as F at uG aes n icR TIPø úyG rYm an n½ yf am anG a tU m G aes nikmY y (As) nig m anG at Um F

cMnY nbIenA k ñúgm : UelK ul rb s ;v anImY y² ehIy rUb m nþm : Ue lK ulrb s ;v aK WAsF3. cUrkt ;sMK al ;f a lMdab ;énF a tu enA kñ úgr Ub m nþm :U elK ulen aH K WdUcK ñaenA kñúg e Q µaH rb s ;va. ]Tah r N_ 1 /6 c UrehA eQ µ aH s m as F atum :UelK u l³ k> SiCl4 x > P4O10. cMelI y k> edays arm anG at Um kø rcMn Yn 4d UecñH s m as F a tu ena H K Ws uIlIsü Úm etR tak ør Y. x > m anG atUm pUs Vrc MnY n 4 ni gm anG a tUm Gu ksIuE s ncMn Yn10 dUec ñH s m as F at ue naH K W etR ta pUsV red kuks Iu t. cU rk t;sMK a l;f aeK lub “ G a” ec j BIeQ µaH ed ka. lMh at ;G nu vt þn_ cUr ehA eQ µaH s m as F atum :UelK ul k> NF3 nigx > Cl2O7

]Tah r N_ 1 / 7 cUrs res r rUb m nþm : UelK uls R m ab ;s m a s F atu³ k> kabU nDIs ‘ulP Y x > DIsIu lIsü Úm Gics aR bUmY. cMelI y k> eda ys a rm a nG atUm kabUnm Yy nigG a tUm s <an;F ½rBI r dU ecñH r Ub m nþK WCS2. x > m anG atUm sI ulI sü Úm BIrnigG at Um R bUmYcMn Yn6 dUecñH r Ub m nþm : UelK ul rb s ;va K W Si2Br6. lMh at ;G nu vt þn_ c Urs r es rr Ub m nþK ImIsMr ab ;s m as F a tum :Ue lK ul³ k> s <an ;F½re tR t aPøú yG rY x > DIG asUtb : g; tuks Iu t. 7>3 GasIutnig)as 7>3>1 karehAeQµaHGasIut G asIutG asIutG asIutG asIut G acR t Uv) a nBN ’na faC as a rF a tuE dl[ C aG Iu y:u gGIuR dUE s n (H+) enA eB leK rMla yv aeTA k ñúg Tw k. r Ub m nþ G asIu tm anG a tUm GI uR dUE s nmY yb¤eR cI nnigR k um G aj : úgpgE dr. G aj :úg E dlm aneQ µ aH b Ba© b ;eda yGY b egáI tG asIu te da yeR bIbuBVb T “ GIuR dU” nig “ Giuc” enA x agcugb B a© b ;

CMB UkTI2

2-29

dUcE dl) anb gð aj enA k ñúg ta r ag5. k ñúgk rN Ix øH eK G ac ehA eQ µaH s m as F atum Yy) a nBIr y: agd Uc kñúg krN Ix ageR k am ÷

HCl GIuR dUE s nkø rY HCl GIuR dUkø ricG asIu t eQ µaH E dleK kM Nt ;cM eBaH s m as F atu enaH K WG aR s½ ye TA nwglk çN³ rUb rb s ; va. kñú g s PaB C a]sµ½nb ¤G gÁF a tu ravs uT§ HClK WC as m as F atum :UelK u lm aneQ µaH f aGIuR dUE s nk ørY. enA eBleK rMla yv aeTA k ñúg Tw k m :Ue lK u lenaH bME b keTA C aGI uy :ug H+ nigGIu y: ug Cl- enA k ñúgs P aBenH s arF at u enaH R tUv) aneK ehA faG IuR d Ukø ri cG asIu t. G uks UG a sIutG uks UG a sIutG uks UG a sIutG uks UG a sIut K WC aG asI ut E dlm anGIuR dUE s n Guk sIuE s n nigF a tum Yye pS geTo t ¬F at ukN þal ¦. rUb m n þén GuksUG asI utC aF mµt aR tUv) an eK s res rC amY y H dMbU g b nþe da y F atuk Nþ al ni gb nÞ ab ;m kK W O dUcE d l) anb g ðaj e da y] Tah r N_x ag eR kam ÷

H2CO3 G asIut kabUn ic HNO3 G asIut nIR T ic H2SO4 G asIuts‘ ulp Yri c HClO3 G asIutkø ri c

GuksUG asI utB Irb¤ elIs B IBIr eR cInE tm a nG a tUm k Nþa ldU cK ñ a b :uE nþ cMn YnG a tUm Guks IuE s n x us K ña. e da ycab ;epþ Im BIGu ksUG asI utE dl eQ µaH vab B a© b ;eda y Gi uc e yI geR bIk,Ü nva dUcx ag eR kam edIm ,IehA eQ µ aH s m as F at uT aMgenH .

tar ag5 G as Iu ts m BaØm Yyc M nYn Gaj:úg GasIutEdlRtUvnwgva F- Pøú yG r Y HF G asI utG IuR dUP øú yG ri c Cl- kørY HCl G asIutGI uR dU kør ic Br- R bUmY HBr G asIu tGIuR d UR bUmic I- G Iu y:U dY HI G asIu tGI uR dUGI uy :UD ic CN- sü aNU HCN G asIu tGIuR d Usü ani c S2- s‘ulp Y H2S G asIutG IuR dUs ‘ulp Yr ic


2-30

r Ub r Ub r Ub r Ub 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 k a rk a rk a rk a r ehA eQ µaH G uks UG asIut n ig G uks UehA eQ µaH G uks UG asIut n ig G uks UehA eQ µaH G uks UG asIut n ig G uks UehA eQ µaH G uks UG asIut n ig G uks U G a jG a jG a jG a j :: :: úgúgúgúg GuksUG asI ut dkGIu y: ugGI uR dUE s n (H+)TMa g G s ; GuksUG aj : úg

+ [O]

- [O] - [O]

-b E nßm G at Um GuksI uE s nmYy eTA elIG as Iu tE dlm a nb c© ½y b T Giuc G as Iu tenaH R t Uv) an e hA

fa E B> > > Giuc. dUe cñH ka r b E nßm G atUm Guks IuE s nmY ye TA [ G asIu tHClO3 R tUvbþÚ r eQ µaH G asIu t køri ceTA C aG asIu tE Bkø ric HClO4. - ka rdkG at Um GuksI uE s nmY yecj B IG asIu t Gi uc G asI ute naH R tUv) a neK ehA eQ µaH f a G asIu tE dlm anb c© ½yb T G W . dUec ñH G asIu tnIR Tic (HNO3) køaye TA C aG asI ut nIR t W (HNO2). - k ar dkG a tUm Guks IuE s n cMnY nBIr ecj G asI utE d lm an b c© ½yb TGi uc G asIu ten aH R tUv) a n eK ehA fa G asI utG Iub :U> > > GW. dUec ñH enA eBlE dlG asIu t HBrO3 R tU v) anbME lg eTA C a G asIu t HBrO G asIu tenaH R t Uv) an eK [ eQ µa H faG asIu tGI ub :UR bUmW.

c,ab ;sM rab ; kar da k;eQ µ aH G uks UG ajG uks UG ajG uks UG ajG uks UG aj :: :: úgúgúgúg E dlC aG aj :úgGuk sUG asuI t K Wm an dUcx ageR ka m ÷

- enA eB lE dlGIu y: ugHTa M gG s ;R tUv) and kecj BIG asIu tE dlm anb c© ½yb TGiuc e Q µaH rb s ;G aj :ú gen aH R tUv) a nb Ba© b ;eda yG a t. ]T ah r N_G a j :úg CO −2

3 E dl) anm kBIG as Iu t H2CO3

K WR tUv) a neK ehA fak abU Na t .

G asuI tE B/// /// //// /// /G ui c

G asuI t Giuc

G asuI t GW

G asuI t GuIbU: /// /// /// //// ///G W GuIbU: // //// /// /// /// /GuI t

//// /// //// /// ///G uI t

//// /// //// /// /// G at

E B/////// /// /// /// /G a t

CMB UkTI2

2-31

- enA eBlE dlGI uy :ug H+ Ta M gG s ;R tUv) aneK dk ecj BIG a sIutE d lm anb c© ½ yb T GW e Q µaH rb s ;G aj :ú gen aH R tUv) a nb Ba© b ;eda yGIu tenA x a gcug . dU e cñH G aj :úg ClO−

2 E dl) anm k BI G asIu t

HClO2 R tUv) aneK [ eQ µaH f akø rIt . - eQ µaH énG aj :úgE d lGIu y:u gGIuR d UE s nmYyb¤ eR cIn b :uE nþminE m nT aMgG s ;R tU v) and k ecj enaH R t UvE tb Ba ¢ak ;BI cMn YnGIu y: ugGIuR d UE s nE dlm a n. C a]Tah rN _ cU rBin itü emI lG aj :úgE dl ) anm kBIG as Iu tpUs Vri c. H3PO4 G asIutp UsVr ic

H2PO−4 DIGI uR dUE s np UsVa t

HPO −24 GIuR dUE s npUs Va t

PO −34 pUsVa t

cUrk t;s MK al; fa C aF mµ tae yIgmi neR bIbuBVb Tm :U NU enA e Blm anG a tUm H E tmY ye nA kñúg G aj :úge naH . r Ub 12 s e gçb BIn am vlIs Mrab ;G uksUG a sIut nigGu ksUG aj :úg ehIy tar ag6 K WC a eQ µaH énGuks UG asI utn igGu k sUG aj :úg E d lm anp ÞúkF at ukø r.

tar ag6 eQ µ aH énGuksUG asIu tnigG uksUG aj :úgE dlm anp Þú kF atu kø r GasIut Gaj:úg HClO4 G asIutE Bkø ric HClO3 G asIutkø ric HClO2 G asIutkø rW HClO G asIutG Iub : Ukø rW

ClO −4 E Bkør:a t

ClO −3 kør: at

ClO −2 kørI t

ClO- GIub :Ukø rI t ]Tah r N_x a geR kam e nH Tak ; TgeTA n wgn am vlIs Mrab ;Guk sUG asIu tni gGuks UG aj :ú g.

]Tah r N_ 1 /8 c Ur dak ;eQ µ a H GuksUG asIu tn igGuks UG aj : ú g³ k> H3PO3 x > IO4

- cMelI y k> ey Igcab ;epþ Im C amYyG as Iu ted Im rb s ;e yIg K WG asIu tpUsV ric (H3PO4).

eda ys ar H3PO3 m anG atU m GuksIuE s nmY yt icC ag dUe cñH eK ehA vaf aG asIu tp UsVr W. x > G asIutem m an rUb m nþ HIO4. edays arG asIu tenH m anG a tUm Guks IuE s n

mYyeR cI nC agG as Iu ted Im (HIO3) v aR tU v) anehA f aG asI ut E BrIy :UD ic. d Uec ñH G aj :úgE d l) anm kBI HIO4 K WeK [ eQ µaH faGI uy :ug E BrIy :Ud at .


2-32

lMh at ;G nu vt þn_³ c UrehA eQ µ aH GuksUG asI ut nigGu ksUG aj :ú gdUcx a geR kam e nH ÷

k> HBrO x > HSO−4

7>3>2 karehAeQµaH)as eK G acBN’ na fa )))) a sa sa sa s K WC as arF a tumY yE dl[ GIu y: ug OH- enA eBlE dl eK rMl ay vaeTA kñúg Twk . x ageR kam e nH K WC a ]Tah r N¾m Yyc MnY nrb s ;) as ÷

NaOH sU dü Úm GIuR d uksI ut KOH b :U tasü Úm GI uR duks Iu t Ba(OH)2 ) ar:ü Úm GI uR du ksIu t G am :Uj : ak;E d lm an rUb m nþmU :e lK ul NH3 K WC as m as F atum :UelK u lmY y E dlsß it e nA kñúg PaBC a]sµ ½nb¤P aBC aG gÁF at u ravsu T§ R t Uv) an eK ca t; Tuk faC a) as s m B aØmY y. ebIe mIlmYyE Pø t eTA vah ak;bI dU cC aK µa nlkç N³sMK al ;C a) as e T b :uE n þe nA eBlE dls a rF at upþ l;GIu y:u gGIuR d uks I ut

enA eBlE dlv arl ay eTA kñ úg Twke naH vamin caM) ac;m anGIu y:u g GIuR duks Iu tenA k ñúg TMr g;m : U elK ulrb s ;v a edIm ,Is MK al; faC a) as eL I y . karB it e nA eBlG am : Uj : ak; rla ykñ úg TwkE pñ kx øH rb s ; NH3 m an R b tikmµC amY yT wke dIm ,Ib e gáI tC aGIu y: ug NH +

4 nigOH- eh tud Uec ñH ehIy) anC aeK cat ;T ukv aC a ) as . 7>4 GIuRdat

G IuR da tG IuR da tG IuR da tG IuR da t KWC as m as F at uT aM gL ay NaE dlm anc MnYnm :Ue lK ulTw kC ak ;la k;P¢ ab ;enA n w gva. C a]Tah rN _ enA s PaBF mµtax ñ at nImY y² én Tg;E dgII s‘ulpa tm a nm :Ue lK ulT wkc MnY nR ) aMm :Ue lK ul P¢ab ;n wgv a. eQ µaH eh A tam R b B½n§sM rab ;s m as F at u enH K WTg;E d gs‘ul pa tR ) aMGI uR dat nig rUb m n þ rb s ;vaR t Uv) a neK s res rC aCuSO4.5H2O. m :UelK u lTwk ecj BIs m as F at u) an eda yk ard ut kMedA . enA eB lE dle yIg du tkMe dA s m as F a tuE dle nA s l;K W CuSO4 E dleBlx øH R tUv) a neK ehA faT g;E dgs ‘ulp atG anI d E dlm ann½ yf aC as m a s F atu E dlK µ anT wke nA C ab ;vae To teh Iy. CuSO4.5H2O m anBN’ex o v CuSO4 m anBN’s .

t a r agt a r agt a r agt a r ag 7 7 7 7 eQ µaHeQ µaHeQ µaHeQ µaH F mµt a n ig eQ µaHF mµt a n ig eQ µaHF mµt a n ig eQ µaHF mµt a n ig eQ µaH ehA tam R b B ½n §é ns m a s F a t ux øHehA tam R b B ½n §é ns m a s F a t ux øHehA tam R b B ½n §é ns m a s F a t ux øHehA tam R b B ½n §é ns m a s F a t ux øH rUbmnþ eQµaHFmµta eQµaHehAtamRbB½n§ CaSO4.2H2O mñagsil a kal;sü Úm s‘ ulp atD IGIuR da t H2O Twk DIGIuR d UE s nGuksI ut

CMB UkTI2

2-33

NH3 G am :Uj : ak; R TIGIuR d UE s nnIR t Y CO2 Twkk ks¶Ü t kabUn DIGuks Iu trw g NaCl GMbils mø sUdü Úm kø rY N2O ]sµ½ns MeN Ic DIG asU tGuks Iu t ¬Gu ksIu tnIR tW¦ CaCO3 fµkM e) ar dIs kal;sü Úm k abUN at CaO kMe) a rrs ; kal;sü Úm Gu ksIu t Ca(OH)2 Twkk Me) a r kal;sü Úm GI uR duks Iu t NaHCO3 em nM sUdü Úm GIuR d UE s nkabU Na t Na2CO3.10H2O sUdasM rab ; lag sUdü Úm kabU Na te dkaG IuR da t MgSO4.7H2O GMbil Epsom m :aej sü Úm s‘ul pa tGib t aGIu R dat Mg(OH)2 Twke daH eK am : aej sü Úm m :aej sü Úm GIuR d uksI ut

s m as F atuG IuR da tx øH epS ge To tK W ÷

BaCl2.H2O ) ar:ü Úm kø rYD IGIuR d at LiCl.H2O lIcUm kør Ym :U NU GIuR da t MgSO4.7H2O m :aej sü Úm s‘ulpa tGib taGI uR da t

Sr(NO3)2.4H2O R sþg;c Um nI R tate tR t aGIuR d at 7>5 smasFatuGsrIragÁFøab;sÁal; s m as F atux øH R t Uv) an eK s Áa l;ed ayeQ µaH F mµt arb s ;v a C ageQ µaH ehA t am R b B½n§K ImI rb s; va. ]T ah r N_Fø ab ;s Áa l;mY ycM nYnR t Uv) a nd ak;e nA kñú gt a rag 7. karsegçbRBwtþikarN_nigbBaØtþiepSg² 1. K ImIviTü a TMe nIb K Wc ab ;ep þIm BIR T w sþIG a tUm rb s ;e lak dal tu n (Dalton) E dl) anE føg fa R K b;rUb -

F atu TaM gG s ;pSM eL IgBIP aK l¥ i tt UcbMpu tmi nG acE ck) ane hA faG at Um R K b ;G atUm TaM gG s ;én F atu dUcK ñ aK Wd UcK ñ aeb H biT s m as F at uE dlm a nG a tU m énF at uepS gK ñ apSMK ñ at am p leFo b C a cMnY nK t; nigG a tUm TaM gG s ;mi nR tUv) a nb egá Itb¤b Mpøaj eTk ñú gR b tikmµK ImI ¬c, ab ;rkS am : a s ¦.


2-34

2. G atUm é nF at upSMe nA kñú gs m a s F atumY yC an ic© k alR tÚ v) a npSMeL Ig tam s m am aR t C a m :as dU cK ña ¬c,ab ;s m am aR tk MN t; ¦. kal NaF a tuB IrG a cpSM K ñaed Im ,Ib egá It) anC as m as F atueR c InC a g mYyR b ePTen aH m :as é nF atum YyE d lpSMC amY yn wgm : a s kMN t;é nF at umY yepS ge To tK WC ap l eFo b éncMnYnK t; tUc ¬c, ab ;B hus m am aR t¦ .

3. G atUm mY ym an pÞú knUv éN Vy U: x ab ;x øaMgm Yye nA cMk Nþ al E dlpÞú kR bUtu gnig NWR tu gnigE dlm an eG L icR tug vilC M uvij é NV y: Ukñ ú gcMg ayq¶ ayK Yrs m BIé NV y: U enaH .

4. R bUtugm a nb nÞú kG K Áis n IviC ¢m a n NWR t ugK µa nb nÞ úkG K Áis n I eT ni geG L icR t ugm anb n Þú kG K Áis n I G viC ¢m an. R bUtu gnig NWR tug m anm :as R b h ak ;R b E h lK ña K WR b E h lC a 1840 d gF¶n; C agm :a s rb s ;eG L icR t ug.

5. elx G atUm é nF a tumY yK WC ac M nYnR bUt ugenA k ñúg éNV y: UénG a tUm rb s ;F a tu enaH ehI yva kMN t ; G tþs Ba Øa NénF a tue naH . cMn Ynm : as K WC aplbU k s rub énc MnY nR bUtu gnig cMn Yn NWR tu genA k ñúg éNV y:U .

6. GIusUt Ub K WC aG a tUm énF at udU c K ñaE dlm an cMn YnR bUt ugd UcK ñ a b :uE nþm an cMn YnN WR tu gx us K ña. 7. rUb m nþK ImIpS Mnim it þs BaØ aénF a tub gáC amYy nwgs n ÞsS n_ cMn Yn K t; ed Im ,Ib gð aj BIR b ePT G atUm n ig

cMnY nG at Um E dlm an enA kñ úgÉ kta tU cbMpu trb s ;s m as F a tumY y. 8. rUb m nþm : UelK ulb g ðaj [ eX I j BIcMn Ynn igR b ePTC a k;l ak; énG at Um E dlpSM enA kñ ú gm :UelK u l

nImYy² rb s ;s m aF a tumY y. rUb m nþga yb gð aj nU vpleF o b gaybMpu ténG at Um E dl pSMenA kñ úg m :UelK ulmY y.

9. s m as F atuK Im IG acC as m a s F atum : UelK ul ¬E dl kñú g enaH Ékt at UcbMp ut K WC am :U elK uld ac ; eda yE L k² BIK ña ¦ b¤C as m a s F atuGI uy :Un ic ¬E dlGI uy :ugv i C ¢m anni gG viC ¢m a nP¢ab ;K ñae da yTM naj eTA vij e TA m k¦. s m as F atuGI uy :Un icb gá eL IgB Ika cug nigG aj : uúg E dl kek IteL I genA eBl G atUm ) a t; nigc MeNj eG L ic R tug.

10. eQ µaH rb s ;s m as F a tuG s r Ir agÁC aeR c InG a cR tUv) an ykec j BIc,ab ;s am Ba Ø² mYyc MnY n) an. rUb m nþs m as F a tus rIr agÁG ac R tUv) ans res rB IeQ µaH rb s ; s m as F atu Ta Mgen aH .

CMB UkTI2

2-35

K Im IK Im IK Im IK Im I G nuvt þnG nuvt þnG nuvt þnG nuvt þn ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ bMENgEckFatuenAelIEpndInigenAkñúgRbB½n§rs;enA

F atuP aK eR cIne kI tm aneL Ige da yF mµC at i etIF at uTa Mge n H ) anE b gE cky: agd Ucemþ cen A elI E pndI ehI yF a tuN aE dlm a ns ar³sMx an;e nA kñú gR b B½n§ r s ;enA ? sMb kE pndIm ank Mras ;40K IL Ú E m :R tBIépÞE pn dI. eda ys a rE t m anka rlM) akx agb e c© keT s GñkviTü as aR sþminG ac sikS aE pñ kx ag kñúg énE pnd I) anR sYl dU csMb kE pndIe T. eT aH bIC ay :ag Nak ¾ed ay k ¾ eK eC O favam ansñ Úlr wgm aMm Y y E dleL I gPaK eR cI nBIE dkenA k Nþ al E pndI. enA C Mvi uj sñÚ lenaH m anR s Tab ;m YyE d leK [ eQ µ aH faR s Tab ; R K b dNþb; ¬Mantle¦ E dlm anG gÁF a tu rav ekþA p ÞúkC a ti E dk kab Un sIulIsü Úm ni gs <a n;F½ r. kñúg cMe Nam F a tu TaM g83E dle K rkeX Ij enA k ñúgF mµC a ti m a nF atu cMn Yn 12 E dlC aF a tu 99,7PaK ry énsMb kE pn dI K itC am : as . t am lM dab ;c uH é nPaBsMbU rE b b kñúgF mµC a ti F atu TaM gG s ; enaH m an O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Ti, H, P nigMn C aed Im . enA kñ úgk a rBiPa kS aK ñ aB I PaBsMbUrE b b kñ úgF mµC a tié n F atu TaM gG s ;e yIgK Y rca Mf a³

1 > F atu TaM gG s ;minE b gE cges µI ² K ñaBas eBj sMb kE p ndI eT 2> F atuP aK eR cIne kI tkñ úgT Mrg ;pSM K ña. eh tuk ar N_T aM genH ) anp þl; [ eyIg nUvR K wH énv iFIPaK eR c In énka rT TYl) anF a tusu T§B I

s m as F atu rb s ;vaE dlGñk nw geX Ij enA C MBU keR ka y².

r Ubr Ubr Ubr Ub 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 PaK ryC am :as énF a tuE dlm anenA k ñúg 100R k am énPaK sM Nak


2-36

¬a¦ PaK ryC am :as ; énF a tu E dlsMbUre nA kñú gF mµC at i. ]Tah r N_ v tþm a nénGu ksIu E s nK W 45,5 PaK ry. enH m ann ½ yfa enA kñ úg 100 R kam én PaK sMNa krb s ;s Mb kE pnd I C am Fü m m an F atuGu ksIuE s n cMn Yn 45,5R k am .

¬b¦ v tþm a nénF a tue nA kñ úgx øÜ nm nusS K itC aPaK r yC am : a s . tar agx ag eR kam r ayF at usM x an;² enA kñ úgx øÜ nm nusS e yI g . K YreG ay cab ;G a rmµ N_C a Bies s

K WF atub n þicb n þÜc (trace elements) dUcC a Fe, Cu, Zn, I, Co C a edIm E dl pSMK ña) an m :as 1PaK r y énm :as rb s ;x øÜne yI gT aMgmU l. F atu Ta MgenH m a ns ar sMx an; Nas ;s Mrab ;mux ga rC Iv³ dUcC a ka r lUtl as; k ard wkC Ba ¢ÜnG uk sIuE s nsMr ab ;em t abUl Is nigk ark arB arR b qMag nwgC M gW . enA kñúgx ø Ün m nusS ey Ig b rim a NF a tu TaM gG s ;enH m anl Mnw gl¥bM pu t kal Nam a nt icR C ulb¤ eR cInR C ulkñ úg ry³eB ly Urv anw gG acn aM[ m anC MgWF¶ n;k ar yW ty :av énmu x garC Iv³m a nC MgW vik lcr ik b¤G acb Nþ al [ søab ;eTo tpg.

tar ag8 F a tusMx an;² enA kñú g x øÜnm nusS Fatu PaKryCam:as Fatu PaKryCam:as

GuksIuE s n kabUn GIuR dUE s n G asUt kal;sü Úm pUsVr b :Ut asü Úm s <an;F ½r kør

65 18 10 3

1,5 1,2 0,2 0,2 0,2

sUdü Úm m :aej sü Úm E dk kU) al ; Tg;E dg s ½gásI GIuy :U t es elj :Úm PøúyG r

0,1 0,05 0,05

<0,05 <0,05 <0,05 <0,05 <0,01 <0,01

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> BaküKnøwH

G asIutG asIutG asIutG asIut Acid 2-30

e lahe lahe lahe lah ³³³³ G a lG a lG a lG a l ;; ;; k aL a Mgk aL a Mgk aL a Mgk aL a Mg Alkali metals 2-14

e lahe lahe lahe lah ³³³³ G a lG a lG a lG a l ;; ;; k a lIN UE T rWuk a lIN UE T rWuk a lIN UE T rWuk a lIN UE T rWu Alkaline earth metals 2-14

CMB UkTI2

2-37

v is m rUbv is m rUbv is m rUbv is m rUb Allotrope 2-19

P aK l ¥itP aK l ¥itP aK l ¥itP aK l ¥it α Alpha (α ) particles 2-6

k a Mrs µI k a Mrs µI k a Mrs µI k a Mrs µI α Alpha (α ) rays 2-6

G ajG ajG ajG aj :: :: úgúgúgúg Anion 2-17

G at UmG at UmG at UmG at Um Atom 2-3

e lx G a t Ume lx G a t Ume lx G a t Ume lx G a t Um Atomic number (Z) 2-11

)))) asasasas Base 2-34

P aK l ¥itP aK l ¥itP aK l ¥itP aK l ¥it β Beta (β ) particles 2-6

k a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µI β Beta (β ) rays 2-6

s m as F a t ue TVF a tus m as F a t ue TVF a tus m as F a t ue TVF a tus m as F a t ue TVF a tu Binary compound 2-24

k a cugk a cugk a cugk a cug Cation 2-17 r Ub m nþK ImIr Ub m nþK ImIr Ub m nþK ImIr Ub m nþK ImI Chemical formula 2-18

mmmm :: :: Ue lK ul D IG a t UmUe lK ul D IG a t UmUe lK ul D IG a t UmUe lK ul D IG a t Um Diatomic molecule 2-15

eG L icR t ugeG L icR t ugeG L icR t ugeG L icR t ug Electron 2-5

r Ub m nþg a yr Ub m nþg a yr Ub m nþg a yr Ub m nþg a y Empirical formula 2-19

R s l a y R s l a y R s l a y R s l a y Families 2-13

k a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µI γ Gamma (γ ) rays 2-6

R k umR k umR k umR k um Groups 2-13

G aL ÚE s nG aL ÚE s nG aL ÚE s nG aL ÚE s n Halogens 2-15

G IuR da t G IuR da t G IuR da t G IuR da t Hydrate 2-34

G IuyG IuyG IuyG Iuy :: :: ugugugug Ion 2-17

s m as F a t uGIuys m as F a t uGIuys m as F a t uGIuys m as F a t uGIuy :: :: ugugugug Ionic compound 2-18

G Ius Ut UbG Ius Ut UbG Ius Ut UbG Ius Ut Ub Isotope 2-12

cccc ,,,, abababab ;; ;; r kSr kSr kSr kS amamamam :: :: a sa sa sa s Law of conservation of mass 2-3

cccc ,,,, abababab ;; ;; s m am aR tk MN ts m am aR tk MN ts m am aR tk MN ts m am aR tk MN t ; ; ; ; Law of definite proportions 2-2

cccc ,,,, abababab ;; ;; Bh us m am aR tBh us m am aR tBh us m am aR tBh us m am aR t Law of multiple proportions 2-2

c Mn Ynmc Mn Ynmc Mn Ynmc Mn Ynm :: :: a sa sa sa s A Mass number A 2-11

e lahe lahe lahe lah ³³³³ Metal 2-13


2-38

G MpUG MpUG MpUG MpU E T E T E T E T Metalloid 2-13

r Ub m nþmr Ub m nþmr Ub m nþmr Ub m nþm :: :: Ue lK ulUe lK ulUe lK ulUe lK ul Molecular formula 2-19

mmmm :: :: UU UU e lK ule lK ule lK ule lK ul Molecule 2-15

G IuyG IuyG IuyG Iuy :: :: ug mug mug mug m :: :: UN UG a t Um UN UG a t Um UN UG a t Um UN UG a t Um Monatomic ion 2-18

N WN WN WN W R tugR tugR tugR tug Neutron 2-10

]]]] sµ½n k Mrsµ½n k Mrsµ½n k Mrsµ½n k Mr Noble gases 2-15

G e lahG e lahG e lahG e lah ³³³³ Non-metals 2-13

é N Vyé N Vyé N Vyé N Vy :: :: UU UU Nucleus 2-9

G uks UG a sIutG uks UG a sIutG uks UG a sIutG uks UG a sIut Oxoacid 2-31

G uks UG a jG uks UG a jG uks UG a jG uks UG a j :: :: úgúgúgúg Oxoanion 2-32

x Yb x Yb x Yb x Yb Period 2-13

t a r agx Ybt a r agx Ybt a r agx Ybt a r agx Yb Periodic table 2-13

G IuG IuG IuG Iu yyyy :: :: ug bug bug bug b :: :: Ul IG a tUm Ul IG a tUm Ul IG a tUm Ul IG a tUm Polyatomic ion 2-18

R bUt ugR bUt ugR bUt ugR bUt ug Proton 2-9

k a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µIk a Mrs µI ; ; ; ; Radiation 2-4

s kmµP aB viT ü ús km µs kmµP aB viT ü ús km µs kmµP aB viT ü ús km µs kmµP aB viT ü ús km µ Radioactivity 2-6

s m as F a t uR t IF at us m as F a t uR t IF at us m as F a t uR t IF at us m as F a t uR t IF at u Ternary compound 2-24

sMNYr TMrg;énGatUm

l Mh atl Mh atl Mh atl Mh at ;; ;; r Ml wkr Ml wkr Ml wkr Ml wk

1. cUr[ ni ym n ½yé nBa kü ³ k> PaK l¥i t α x > PaK l¥it β K >kaM rsµI γ X > kaMrsµ I X

2. cUr[ eQ µ aH R b ePTviTü ús kmµ E dleK sÁal ;faR tUv) anb nS a yed ayF at uvi Tü ús kmµ.

3. cUreR bo b eFo b lkçN³én³ P aK l¥i t α kaMrs µIk at Ut R bUt ug NWR tu g eG L icR t ug.

4. etIB akü “ PaK l ¥i tmUl dæa n” m ann½ yy :ag dU cemþc ? 5. cUrB iBN’ naB Ika rr Ym viPaK Tan rb s ;Gñkv iTü as aR sþb nþe TA enH cMeBaH c MeNH d wgrb s ;e yI g GMBIT Mrg ;

G atUm ³ el ak J.J.Thomson elak R.A.Millikan elak Ernest Rutherford

elak James Chadwick .

CMB UkTI2

2-39

6. cUrB iBN’ naB ImUl dæa nénk arB i es aF sMrab ;ka reC O C ak ;fa é NVy :UC aE p ñkt UcbMp ut énm aD r b s ; G atUm .

l Mh atl Mh atl Mh atl Mh at ;; ;; 7. G gát; p© ité nG a tUm eG lü Úm N W tmYyK Wm anR b E h l1x102 pm. eda ys nµ t; fae yI gG acero b

G atUm eG lü Úm C ab ;² K ñ aBImY y eTA mYy. e tIR b E h lb :un µan G atUm G ace ro b ) anc Mga y BIcugm çag eTA cugmç age To tR b E vg 1cm?

8. niy ay rYm e TA ka Mrb s ;G at U m K WFMC agka Mrb s ;é NV y: UC acM nYn10.000d g. R b sineb I G atUm mY y R tUv) an eK BR gIk[ FMrh Ut d l;ka MéN Vy :U rb s ;vam anR b E vg 2cm K WesµInw gTMh Mrb s ;X øI et Ika M G atUm e naH m anR b E vgesµIb :un µa ném :?(1ém : = 1609 m).

elxGatUm cMnYnm:as nigGIusUtUb s MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wk em ero nem ero nem ero nem ero n

9. cUreR bIeG lü Úm GI usU tUb4ed Im ,I kMN t;e lx G atUm nigc MnY nm :a s . eh tuG VI) anC aka rd wge lx G atUm G aceG a yey Ig dwgB IcM nYneG L icR tugm anenA k ñúgG at Um mY y?

10. eh tuGV I) anC aG at Um Ta MgG s ; énF at umY ym anelx G a tUm dU cK ña e TaH bIC a vam a ncMn Ynm : as x us K ña k¾ed ay ?

11. etIe yI gehA G at Um énF a tu dUc K ñaE dlm an cMn Ynm : as x us K ña y:a gdU cemþc ? l Mh atl Mh atl Mh atl Mh at ;; ;; 12. cUrBnü l ;G tß n½ yénB akü nIm Y y² enA kñ úgnim it þs BaØ a A

Z X

13. etIG a tUm E d kE dlm an NWR tu g 28 m ancMn Ynm : as b :un µan ?

14. cUrK N nac MnY nNWR tugé n Pu-239.

15. cMeBaH R b ePTK ImI nImY y² x ag eR kam enH cUr kM Nt; cMn YnR bUt u gnigc MnY nNWR tug e nA kñú géN V y:U rb s ;va³

32 He, 42 He, 24

12 Mg , 2512 Mg , 48

22 Ti , 7935 Br , 195

78 Pt

16. cUrb Ba ¢ak ;BI cMn YnR bUt ug N WR tu g nigeG L icR tuge nA kñ úgR b ePTK ImIn ImYy² x ag eR kam enH ³ 15

7 N, 3316 S , 63

29 Cu, 8438 Sr , 130

56 Ba , 18674 W, 202

80 Hg

17. cUrs r es rn imit þs Ba Øas m R s b sMrab ;GI usU tUb nIm Yy² d Ucx a geR kam ³

k> Z=11 ,A=23 x > Z= 28, A= 59

18. cUrs r es rn imit þs Ba Øas m R s b sMrab ;GI usU tUb nIm Yy² d Ucx a geR kam ³


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k> Z=74 ,A=186 x > Z= 80, A= 201 taragxYb

s MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wk

19. etIGV IC at ar agx Yb ? eh Iy etI v am ans a r³R b eyaC n _GVI enA kñ ú gkars ikS aK ImIvi Tü a? 20. cUrR ) ab ;B Ilk çN³x us K ñ aBI ry : agrv agel ah ³ni gG elah ³ ? 21. cUrs r es reQ µ aH nign imit þs B aØas Mrab ;F at ubYne nA kñú gR b ePTnImY y² x ageR k am ³ k> G elah ³ x > elah ³ K > GMpUE T 22. cUr[ ni ym n ½yé nBa kü x age R kam eda yP¢ ab ;m kC amY yn Uv ]Tah r N_B Ir² pg³ k> elah ³G al ;kaL aMg x > elah ³G al;k alI NUE T ruW K > G aL ÚE s n X > ]sµ½nkM r

l Mh atl Mh atl Mh atl Mh at ;; ;; 23. F atuE d leQ µaH rb s ; vab Ba© b ; eda y GUm C aF mµt aC ael ah ³ dUcC as Udü Úm C a] Tah r N_.

cUrk MN t;G tþs Ba Øa NG ela h ³E dleQ µaH rb s ;v ab Ba© b ;e da yGUm E dr. 24. cUrB iBN’ naB Ika rE R b R bYllkçN³ ¬BIe lah ³e TA G elah ³ b¤BIG el ah ³eTA el ah ³vi j ¦ enA

eBlE dle yIgB ini tü emIlB Ie lIm keR kam tam R kum x Yb n ig BIsþa Mm keqVg ént ar agx Yb . 25. Bini tü emIlBI kñú geso vePA T inñ n½y rUb ni gK ImI ¬s YrR K UE Nn aMr b s ;GñkemIl fae tIGñ kG ac rk

eso vePA enaH enA kE nø gNa ¦e dIm ,Ir k³ k> elah ³ BIrE d lm andg ;sIu et tUcC agT wk x > elah ³BIrE dlm and g;sI ue tFMC ag) a rt K > elah ³ rwg F ¶n;C ageK E dl eK sÁal ; X > F atuG elah ³ rwgF ¶ n;C ag e K E dleK sÁal; .

26. cUrd ak ;C aR kum n UvF a tux ag eR k am enH C aK U E dlGñkK i tf am a nlkç N³d UcK ña³ K, F, P, Na, Cl, nig N.

m:UelKulnigGIuy:ug s MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wk 27. etIG a tUm n igm : UelK ulm anl kçN³x us K ñ ay :ag dU cemþc ? 28. dUcemþ cE dlehA f aF a tuE dl m anTM rg; vis m rUb ? c Ur[ ] Tah r N_. et Ivis m r Ub x us BIGIusU tUb

y:a gdU cemþcE dr? 29. cUrB iBN’ naB Ika reR bIK Mr Um :Ue l K ulBIrE d leK ni ym eR bI.

CMB UkTI2

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30. cUr[ ] Tah r N_é nBa kü nImY y² dUcx ageR kam e nH ³ k> kac ugm :U NUG a tUm x > G aj :úgm :U NUG at Um K > kacugb :U lIG at Um X > G aj :úgb : UlIG a tUm

l Mh atl Mh atl Mh atl Mh at ;; ;; 31. cUrk MN t;G tþs Ba Øa NF a tub¤C as m as F at ux ageR k am enH ³

NH3, N2, S8, NO, CO, CO2, H2, SO2. 32. cUr[ ] Tah r N_B Iré nX øan ImY y² x ageR kam e nH ÷

k> m :UelK ul DIG a tUm E dlm a nG atUm énF a tud UcK ñ a. x > m :UelK ulDIG at Um E dlm a nG atUm énF a tux us K ñ a. K > m :UelK ulb :Ul IG a tUm E dl m anG at Um énF a tu dUcK ñ a. X > m :UelK ulb :U lIG a tUm E dl m anG at Um énF a tux us K ñ a.

33. cUrp þl;c MnY nR bUtu g nig eG L ic R tugenA k ñúgGI uy :ugF mµ ta nImY y² x ageR kam ÷

Na+ Ca2+ Al3+ Fe2+ I- F- S2- O2- nig N3-. 34. cUrp þl;R ) ab ;B IcM nYnR bU tug nige G L icR tuge nA kñú gGIu y: ugF mµt anImY y² dU cx ageR k am ÷

K+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Br- , Mn2+, C4-, Cu2+. rUbmnþKImI

s Mn Yrs Mn Yrs Mn Yrs Mn Yr rMl wkrMl wkrMl wkrMl wk em ero nem ero nem ero nem ero n

35. etI rUb m nþK ImI ta g[ GVI ? et IGVI C apleFo b énG at Um enA kñ úgr U b m nþm :UelK u lx ageR k am enH ? k> NO x > NCl3 K > N2O4 X > P4O6

36. cUr[ ni ym n ½y rUb m nþm : UelK u lnigr Ub m nþg ay . et Im an GVIdU cK ña nigGV Ix us K ña rva grUb m nþm :Ue lK ul nigr Ub m nþg ay rb s ;s m as F atum Yy ?

37. cUr[ ] Tah r N_mY yk ñúg krN I E dlm :UelK u lBI rm anr Ub m nþm : U elK ulx us K ña b : uE nþm a nrUb m nþga y dUcK ñ a.

38. etI P4 m ann½ y fa y:a gdU cemþ c? et Ivax us BI P4 y:ag dUc e mþc? 39. etIGV IC as m as F a tuGI uy :ug ? etIP aBN WtG K Á is nIR tU v) anr kS aenA k ñúgs m as F at u GIuy :ug y: ag

dUcemþ c? 40. cUrBnü l ;eh t uGVI) anC ar Ub m nþ K ImIéns m as F a tuGI uy :ugE tg E tdUcK ñ ae TA nwg rUb m nþg ay r b s ;va?

l Mh atl Mh atl Mh atl Mh at ;; ;;


2-42

41. etI rUb m nþg ay éns m as F a tu x ageR kam enH y:a gdU cemþc ? k> C2N2 x > C6H6 K > C9H20 X > P4O10 g> B2H6

42. etI rUb m nþg ay éns m as F a tu x ageR kam enH y:a gdU cemþc ? k> Al 2Br6 x > Na2S2O4 K> N2O5 X > K2Cr2O7

43. cUrs r es rr Ub m nþm :U elK ulé n K øIsIun E dlC aG asI utG am Ue nm anenA k ñúgR bUe tGIu n. B N’R b epH KW kabUn B N’ex o vK WG as Ut B N’R kh m K WGuksI uE s n nig B N’elO gK WGIuR d UE s n.

44. cUrs r es rr Ub m nþm :U elK ulé ne G taN ul. BN’R b epH K Wk a bUn BN ’R kh m K WGuksI uE s n nigB N’

elO gK WGIuR d UE s n.

45. etIs m as F a tu Na éns m as F atux a geR kam enH E dl TMn g C as m as F atuG Iu y:u g? ehI ys m as -

F atu NaE dl TM ngC as m as F atum : UelK ul ? SiCl4 , LiF, BaCl2 , B2H6, KCl, C2H4

46. etIs m as F a tu Na éns m as F atux a geR kam enH E dl TMn g C as m as F atuG Iu y:u g? ehI ys m as - F atu NaE dlm anT MngC as m as F at um :Ue lK ul? CH4, NaBr, BaF2, CCl4 , ICl, CsCl, NF3.

karehAeQµaHsmasFatuGsrIragÁ

s MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wks MN Yr r Ml wk em ero nem ero nem ero nem ero n

47. etIm a nGVIx us K ñ arv ags m as F atus rIr agÁ nigs m as F at uG s rIr agÁ ? 48. etIR b ePTs Mx an;b YYn rb s ;s m as F at uG s rIr agÁm anGV Ix øH ? 49. cUr[ ] Tah r N_mY ysM rab ;s m as F atu eTVF at u nigmY ysM ra b ;s m as F atuR tIF a tu. 50. etIR b B½n § Stock C aGVI ? et Iva m anG tßR b e yaC n_G VIC agR b B½ n§cas ;kñ úgk arehA eQ µ aH kac u g?

B N’elOg B N’Rkhm

B N’Rb epH

B N’elOg B N’Rkh

B N’Rb epH B N’ex ov

CMB UkTI2

2-43

51. cUrBnü l ;fa eh tuG VI) a nC ar Ub m nþ HCl G act age da yR b B½ n§K ImIBI rx us K ña dUe cñH . 52. cUr[ ni ym n ½yG asIu t ) as GuksUG asI ut Gu ksUG aj :úg n i gGIuR da t.

l Mh atl Mh atl Mh atl Mh at ;; ;; 53. cUrehA eQ µ aH s m as F atux ag eR kam enH ÷

k> KH2PO4 x> K2HPO4, K > HBr(g) X > HBr(T wk) g> Li 2CO3

c> K2Cr2O7 q > NH4NO2 C> HIO3 Q > PF5 j > P4O6

d> CdI2 f> SrSO4 D> Al(OH)3

54. cUrehA eQ µ aH s m as F atu dU c x ageR kam ÷ k> KClO x > Ag2CO3 K > HNO2 X > KMnO4 g> CsClO3

c> KNH4SO4 q > FeO C > Fe2O3 Q > TiCl4 j > NaH

d> Li 3N f> Na2O2 T. Na2O

55. cUrs r es rr Ub m nþsM rab ;s m a s F atub n þeTA enH ÷ k> ru y b ‘Idü Úm nIR TIt x > b :Ut asü Ú m s‘ulPY K > sUdü Úm GIuR dUE s ns‘u lPY X > m :aej sü Úm pUsVa t g> kal;sü Úm GI uR dUE s ns‘ ulpa t c> b :Utasü Úm DIGIuR dUE s npUs Va t q > GIuy:U DUGib taP øú yG rY C > G am :Uj : Úm s‘ulp at

Q > R ) ak;E Bkør: at j > b rR TIkør Y 56. cUrs r es rr Ub m nþsM rab ;s m a s F atu dUcx a geR kam ÷

k> Tg;E dg(I)sü a NY x > R ság;cUm k ørI t K > G asIutE BR bUmic X > G asIutGI uR dUGI uy :UD ic g> DIsUdü Úm G am :Uj : Úm pUsV at c> sMN(II) k abUN a t q > sMN) a:h a Mg(II) Pø úyG rY C > etR tapUs VrY edk as‘u lPI t Q > ) art (II) Guks Iu t j > ) art(I)GIu y: UDY d> es elj :Úm Gi cs aPø úyG rY .

l Mh atl Mh atl Mh atl Mh at ;; ;; b E n ßmb E n ßmb E n ßmb E n ßm 57. PaK sMNa kéns m as F at uGu‘ yr: aj : Úm R tUv) a neK rk eX Ij f am ank ar) a t;m :as C ab n þb nÞa b ;. cUrBnü l ;fa et Im anGV Iek IteL I gcMeB aH PaK sMN aken aH . 58. enA kñúgK Ux ageR k am et IK UN aE dlR b ePTT aMgB Im an lkç N ³K ImIC itK ñ abMpu t? cUrB nü l;.

k H11 nig +H1

1 x N147 nig −314

7 N K C12

6 nig C136


2-44

59. GuIsUt Ub énF a tue lah ³mY ym ancM nYnm : as 6 5 ni gm anc MnY nNWR t úgenA k ñúg éNV y: U35 . kacug E dl) anm kB IGIusU tUb e naH m a neG L iR tug cMn Yn2 8. cU rs r es rnimi tþs B aØ asMr ab ;k acug e nH .

60. GuIsUt Ub énF a tuG e lah ³mY y m ancMn Ynm : as 1 27 nigm a n cMnY nNWR tuge nA kñú géN Vy :U 74 . G ajú:gE d l) anm kBG IusU tUb enaH m aneG L iR t ugc MnY n 54 . cUrs r es rn imit þs Ba ØasM ra b ;G ajú:g enH .

61. tar agx ag eR kam enH R ) ab ;B IcM nYneG L icR tug R bÚ tug ni g NWR tu genA k ñúgG a tUm rWGIu y :ugé nF atum Yy cMnY n. cU reqøI ysM NYrb nþe TA e nH k/ etIR b ePTK ImI Na NWt ? x /etIR b ePTK Im INam anb nÞ ú k G viC ¢m an ? K / et IR b ePTK ImI Nam anb nÞú kviC ¢m an ? X / et IGVIC a nimi tþ s BaØas nµt rb s ;R b ePTT Mage nH ?

G atUm r WGIu y: ugénF at u A B C D E F G cMnY neG L icR t úg 5 10 18 28 36 5 9

cMnY nR bÚtu g 5 7 19 30 35 5 9

cMnY nNWR túg 5 7 20 36 46 6 10

62. etIm a nGVIE d lx us rWm a nn½ y minR ) akdc MeB aH X øaE dl fa “ bYnmU:elK ulén NaCl ” ? 63. pUsVrsu ‘lP Yb nþe TA enH R tÚv) a neK sÁal ;³ P4S3, P4S7 nigP4S10. etIs m as F at uT aMgenH ) a n

eK arBe TA tam c ,ab ;Bhus m a m aR tE drr WeT ? 64. kñúg cMe Nam F a tux ag eR kam en H etIF atu NaC am :Ue lK ulb :uE nþrminE m nC as m as F at u F atu NaC a

s m as F atub : uE nþmi nE m nC amU:e lK ul nige tIF at uN aC as m a s F atupgC amU:e lK ulpg ? k/ SO2

x / S8 K / Cs X / N2O5 g/ O c/ O2 q / O3 C / CH4 Q / KBr j / S d / P4 f/ LiF

65. eh tuGV I) anC am :aej sü Úm k ørY (MgCl2) eK minehA fa m : ae j sü Úm II k ør Y? 66. s m as F atux øH R t Úv) an eK sÁa l;t am ry³ ka rehA eQ µaH F mµ taC aC a geQ µaH ehA t am R b B½ næK ImI.

cUreG a y rUb m nþé ns arF at ub nþeTA enH ³ k /Tw kkks ¶Ü t x /GMbils mø K / ]sµ½ nsMe NIc X / fµm :ab r Wd Is rW fµk Me) a r g/kMe) a rrs ; c/ Twk kMe) ar q /sUda du tnM C /s Uda lag Q /mñagsil a j / Twk edaH eK am :aej sü Úm .

CMB UkTI2

2-45

67. cUrbMeBj cen øaH enA kñ úg tar ag x ageR kam ³ nimitþsBaØa 54

26 Fe2+ RbUtug 5 79 86 NWRtug 6 16 117 136 eGLicRtug 5 18 79 bnÞúksrub -3 0

68. k> etIF a tu Nax øH m a nTM ena r b egáI tC as m as F a tuGI uy :ug ? x > F atuel ah ³Nax ø H E dlm an TMen arb eg áI tka cugE d lm anb nÞúkx us K ñ a?

69. etIGI uy :ug Naé nGIu y: ugb nþ eTA enH m anTM ena rb egá Its m as F atuG Iu y:u g³ k> Li x > S K > I X > N g> Al c> Cs q > Mg?

70. etIn imi tþs Ba Øa Nak ñúg cMe Nam nimit þs Ba Øax ag eR kam pþ l;B t’ m anb E nßm GMBIG a tUm ³ 23Na, b¤ 11Na? cUrBnü l; .

71. cUrs r es rr Ub m nþK ImIn igeQ µ a H énG asIu tE dlm a nF at ukñ úgR kum7A. c UreFV IdU cK ña cMeB aH F atu enA kñ úg R kum 3A, 4A, 5A nig 6A.

72. kñúg cMe Nam F a tu TaM g112E dleK ) ansÁal ; m anE tF at uBIr e TE dlC aG gÁF at ura venA sI utu NðPaB 25 G gS aes . e tIF at uenaH C aF atuG VIx øH ? ¬ tMr uy ³ F a tumY yK WC ael ah ³E dleK Fø ab ;sÁ al;n igF a t u mYyeTo tK Wsß ite nA kñú gR kum T I 7A¦.

73. sMrab ; ]sµ½ nkM r¬F a tue nA kñú gR kum 8A¦ 42 He, 20

10 Ne, 4018Ar, 84

36 Kr nig 13254 Xe.

k> cUrk MN t;c MnY nR bUtu gnig NW R tugenA k ñúg éNV y: UénG at Um nI mYy² . x > cUrkM Nt ;pleFo b rva gN W R tugni gR bUtu genA k ñúgé NV y: Ué nG atUm nImY y² . cUrB iBN’ na TMen ar TUe TA Nam Y y E dlGñk rkeX Ij t am bME r:bMrY lpleFo b C amYy nwg kare k In eL Igéne lx G at Um .

74. cUre ro b rab ;eQ µ aH énF a tuE dl m anG ti ßPaBC a ]sµ½ nenA s I tu NðPaBb nÞb; ¬tM ru y³ F a tu T aMgenH e nA kñúgR k um 5A, 6A, 7A nig8A¦.

75. elah ³enA k ñúgR k um 1B dUc C a Cu, Ag ni g Au R tUv ) aneK ehA eQ µaH faC ael ah ³eFVIka k ;. etIv am an lkç N³K ImIGV IE dle FVI[ vam a nlkç N³Bi es s kñ úg kareFV Ir UbIv tßú n igeR K O gG lgá a rdUe cñH ?


2-46

76. F atuE d lsßi tenA k ñúgR k um8Aé nta ragx Yb R t Uv) a neK ehA fa C aF atu ]sµ½ nkM r. etIGñ kG ac yl; eX Ij kM rk ñúg b rib Tn½ ye nH m ann½ yf aem : c?

77. rUb m nþk al;sü Úm Gu ksIu tK W CaO. etIm : aej :sü Úm Guks Iu tni gR sþg;cUm Gu ksIu tm a nrUb m n þ dUcemþ c? 78. E r:eR cInC Yb R b TH rb s ;) a r:ü Úm K W ) arI t b¤) arü : Úm s‘u lpa t(BaSO4). edays arF a tu en A kñúgR kum

C amYyK ñ akñ úgt ar agx Yb m an l kçN³K Im IR s edo gK ña e yI gk¾R b E h lrMBw gfa nwg rkeX I j ra: dü Úm s‘ulpa tx øH (RaSO4) enA layC am Yy) arI tE dr e da ys ar ra :dü Úm K WC aF a tu cugeR k ayé nR kum

2A. eTaH bIC a y: agN a k¾ e da yk¾R b PBE tmY yK t ;rb s ; s m as F atu r:a dü Úm enA k ñúgF mµ C atiK We nA kñúgE r :G‘u yr :aj : Úm . eh t uGVI ?

79. cUrr ay eQ µaH F a tuc MnY nR ) aME d lF atu nImY y² ³ k> R tUv) an da k;eQ µ aH tam B ITI kE nøg? x > R tUv) and ak; eQ µaH eTA tam m nusS ?. K > R tUv) and ak; eQ µaH t am B N’? ¬t Mr uy³ emI l]b s m <½ n§T I 1¦

80. cUr[ eQ µ aH R b eTs E tmYyK t;E dl dak ;eQ µ aH tam B IF at umY y. ¬ tMr uy³ R b eT s enH K WenA G aem ricx a gt, Úg¦ .

81. PøúyG rm anR b t ikmµC amY yGI u R dUE s nnig dWe tr :ü Úm ed Im ,Ib egáI tC aGI uR dUE s nPø úyG rYn i gdWe tr :ü Úm PøúyG rY E dld We tr:ü Úm 2

1 H K WC aGIusU tUb rb s ;GI uR dUE s n. e tIb rim aNP øú yG rE dleK [ e naH m an R b tikmµC amY ym : as x us ² K ña énGIusU tUb rb s ;GIuR d UE s nE dr b¤eT? e tIr Mel aPc, ab ;s m am aR tkM Nt ; E drb¤eT ? cU rBnü l;.

82. cUr TsS n_ Ta yrUb m n þni geQ µa H s m as F atue TVF a tu E dl ke kIteL IgBIF at udU cte TA enH ³ k> NanigH x > BnigO K > NanigS X > Al nigF g> FnigO c> Sr nigCl.

83. cUrk MN t;G tßs Ba Øa Nca t; fñ a k;F at unIm Yy² x ag eR kam enH ³ k> G aL ÚE s nmYyE dlG aj :ú grb s ;vam aneG L icR tug cMn Y n 36 x > ]sµ½nkM rvi Tü ús kmµE dlm a nR bUtug 86

K > F atumYy enA R kum 6AE dl G aj :úg rb s ;vam aneG L icR tu g36

X > kacuge lah ³G al ;k aL aM gmYyE dlm aneG L icR tug36

g> kacugR k um 4AmYyE dlm aneG L icR t ug 80.

CMB UkTI2

2-47

c Me lIyc Me lIyc Me lIyc Me lIy ]]]] T ah rNT ah rNT ah rNT ah rN _ _ _ _ G n uv t þnG n uv t þnG n uv t þnG n uv t þn __ __ 1. 29 R bUtu g 34 NWR tug 29 eG L icR tug 2. CHCl3 3. C4H5N2O 4. k- sMN (II) GuksI ut x - lIcUm su ‘lPI t 5. k- Rb2SO4 x - BaH2 6. k- G asUtR T IPøú yG r Y x - DI kør YGi b taGuks uI t 7. k- SF4 x - N2O5 8. k- G asuI tGIub : UR bUmU x - GuIy :ugGI uR dUE s ns‘ ulp at

c Me lIyc Me lIyc Me lIyc Me lIy 8. 0.12 mi. 14. 145. 16. N(7, 8, 7) ; S(16, 17, 16) ; Cu(29, 34, 29) ; Sr(38, 46, 38) ; Ba(56, 74, 56) ; W(74, 112, 74) ; Hg(80, 122, 80). 18. (kkkk) 186

74 W

(xxxx) 20180 Hg 24. (kkkk) l kç N ³rb s ;elah H ek IneL I gBIel I cuH eTA eR kam tam R kúm (xxxx) lkç N³

rb s ;elah ³ fy cuH BIel IeqVg eTA sþM at am x Yb 26. F nig Cl ; Na nig K; P nig N 32. (kkkk) H2

nig F2 (xxxx) HCl nig CO(KKKK) S8 nig P4 34. (R bÚtug NWR túg ): K+ (19, 18); Mg2+ (12, 10);

Fe3+(26, 23) ; Br- (35, 36) ; Mn2+ (25, 23) ; C4-(6, 10) ; Cu2+(29, 27). 42. (kkkk) AlBr3

(xxxx) NaSO2(KKKK) N2O5(XXXX) K2Cr2O7 44. C2H6O 46. s m as F at uGIu y: ug ³ NaBr, BaF2,

CsCl s m as F atumU:elK ul³ CH4 , CCl4 , ICl , NF3 . 54. (kkkk) bU: tasü Úm GIub :Uk ørI t (xxxx) R ) ak;k abU Na t (KKKK) G asuI tnIR T W (XXXX) b U: tasü Úm E Bm :g;ka Na t (gggg) es süÚm kør a: t (cccc) bU:tasü Úm G amU :jÚ:m su ‘lp at (qqqq) E dk (II) Gu ksuI t (CCCC) E dk (III)

GuksuI t (QQQQ) TItan(IV) kørY (jjjj) sUdü Üm GIuR d Ü (dddd) lIcUm nIR t Ü (zzzz) sUdü Úm Gu ksuI t (DDDD)

sUdü Úm E BGuksI ut 56. (kkkk) CuCN, (xxxx) Sr(ClO2)2 , (KKKK) HBrO4 , (XXXX) HI , (gggg)

Na2(NH4)PO4 , (cccc) PbCO3 , (qqqq) SnF2 , (CCCC) P4O10 , (QQQQ) HgO , (jjjj) Hg2I2 , (dddd) SeF6 ,

58. C-12 nig C-13 (kkkk) I-(kkkk) NaCl C as m as F a tuG Iu y:u gmYy 64. (kkkk) SO2 , (xxxx) S8 , (KKKK) Cs,

(XXXX) N2O5 , (gggg) O ,(cccc) O2 ,(qqqq) O3 ,(CCCC) CH4 ,(QQQQ) KBr (jjjj) S , (dddd) P4 , (zzzz) LiF 66. (kkkk) CO2

(rwg) , (xxxx) NaCl , (KKKK) N2O , (XXXX) CaCO3 , (gggg) CaO , (cccc) Ca(OH)2 , (qqqq) NaHCO3 ,(CCCC)

Na2CO3.10H2O,(QQQQ) CaSO4. 2H2O,(jjjj) Mg(OH)2 68.s m as F at uGIu y:u gR tÚv) a nb eg á It eL Igeva gF at uén elah ³ n ig G elah ³. 70. 23Na . 72. Hg ni g Br2 74. H2 , N2 , O2 , F2,

Cl2 , He , Ne , Ar , Kr , Xe , Rn. 76. minm anR b t ikmµ He, Ne, nig Ar K WC aF at u K I mInicl 78.

Ra K WC aplit plE dl) a nm kBIR b ti kmµbME b kvi Tü ús kmµ r b s ;Gu‘y ra:j Ú:m(U-238). 80. G ahS g;TIn (Argentina). 82. (kkkk) NaH , sU dü Üm GIuR dÜ (xxxx) B2O3, DIb rR TIG uksI ut (KKKK) Na2S , sUdü Üm su ‘lp Y (XXXX) AlF3 , G aluymIjÚ :m Pøú yG rY (gggg) OF2 , GuksIuE s n DIPø úyG r Y (gggg) SrCl2 , R sþg;c U m kørY.

GatUm m:UelKul nig GIuy u:g · GatUm mUelK ul n ig Guyu g 2-4 2>1 eGLicRtug enA kúg Tsv tSqña M...

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Transcript of GatUm m:UelKul nig GIuy u:g · GatUm mUelK ul n ig Guyu g 2-4 2>1 eGLicRtug enA kúg Tsv tSqña M...