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Psychological Skills Training in Portuguese Professional

Soccer: Reality or Utopia?

The Views of Elite Soccer Coaches and Players

Simão Pedro Fernandes de Freitas

Orientadores / Supervisors :

Cláudia S. L. Dias, PhD

António M. Fonseca, PhD

Dissertação de doutoramento em

Ciências do Desporto apresentada

à Faculdade de Desporto da

Universidade do Porto de acordo

com o Decreto-lei nº 74/2006 de 24

de Março.

Doctoral dissertation in Sport

Sciences presented to the

University of Porto, Faculty of Sport,

according to the Decree-law nº

74/2006 from March 24th.

Porto, 2013

ii

Freitas, S. (2013). Psychological skills training in Portuguese professional

soccer: Utopia or reality? The views of elite soccer coaches and players. Porto:

S. P. F. de Freitas. Dissertação de Doutoramento em Ciências do Desporto

apresentada à Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto.

KEY-WORDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING, PSYCHOLOGICAL

TECNHIQUES, PORTUGUESE SOCCER, ELITE, COACHES, PLAYERS.

iii

This thesis is dedicated to

my Parents, Dete and Antonieta Ochoa

Thank you very much for the

endless support and encouragement

Esta tese é dedicada aos

meus Pais, à Dete e à Antonieta Ochoa

Muito obrigado pelo

incansável apoio e incentivo

v

Agradecimentos

Em primeiro lugar tenho que agradecer aos Professores Doutores

Cláudia Dias e António M. Fonseca pela orientação, partilha de conhecimento e

disponibilidade evidenciada ao longo desta dissertação. Foi um enorme

privilégio ter sido orientado por dois profissionais de excelência na área da

Psicologia do Desporto. Agradece-lhos profundamente o enriquecimento

pessoal e profissional que me proporcionaram.

A outro nível tenho que agradecer ao meu amigo e «companheiro de

batalhas», Rui Bento, por todas as experiências práticas, pela compreensão e

incentivo durante todos estes anos.

Um agradecimento também muito especial ao Antero Henrique e ao Luís

Castro pela compreensão evidenciada ao longo da elaboração da presente

tese. Um grande obrigado ainda pelos exemplos práticos de liderança que

contribuíram indubitavelmente para o meu desenvolvimento pessoal.

No mesmo sentido tenho que agradecer as importantes conversas que

tive oportunidade de privar com treinadores que eu considero como referências

no contexto futebolístico, nomeadamente o professor Jesualdo Ferreira e o

«mister» Jorge Jesus. Muito obrigado por todos os ensinamentos valiosos bem

como pelos vários conselhos práticos transmitidos ao longo destes anos.

Ao professor Vítor Frade que «com os seus textos e quadras; potenciou

e muito todo o meu saber; ao invés de um teorema de Pitágoras; ensinou-me

um operacionalizar para vencer».

Uma palavra também de reconhecido agradecimento para todos os

prestigiados jogadores e treinadores, que tão generosamente contribuíram para

esta investigação. Sem a sua prestimosa colaboração a concretização desta

dissertação não teria sido possível.

vi

Gostaria ainda de deixar um agradecimento profundo à «minha

faculdade» - Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto - na pessoa do

Professor Jorge Olímpio Bento, não só pela formação académica mas também

por todo o apoio evidenciado ao longo de todos estes anos.

E por fim, às pessoas mais importantes da minha vida… aos meus pais

e à Dete por tudo aquilo que fizeram por mim e à Antonieta Ochoa por tornar a

minha vida plena de sentido. Apesar de ser muito difícil expressar por palavras

tudo aquilo que vocês significam para mim, deixo-vos um…Muito obrigado por

tudo.

Simão Freitas

vii

Contents

List of figures ………………………………………………………………… viii

List of tables ............................................................................................ ix

Abstract …………………………………………………...…………………… xi

Resumo ………………………………………………………………………… xiii

List of abbreviations ………………………………………………………… xv

General introduction ………………………………………………………… 17

Paper I

Psychological skills training applied to soccer: A systematic review based

on research methodologies ……………………………………………………

29

Paper II

What do coaches think about psychological skills training in soccer? A

study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams ………………………………

47

Paper III

How do elite soccer coaches prepare their players and teams

psychologically? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams ……….

71

Paper IV

Elite soccer coaches use of Psychological techniques …………………….

93

Paper V

Psychological skills training in Portuguese premier soccer league: Players’

perspectives and experiences ………………………………………………...

121

Paper VI

Elite soccer players’ use of psychological techniques. Where, when and

why ……………………………………………………………………………….

139

General discussion and conclusions ……………………………………. 161

References …………………………………………………………………….. 169

viii

List of figures

General introduction

Figure 1. Vealey’s framework for understand psychological skills in sport 21

Paper II

Figure 1. Soccer coaches’ educational background in Sport Psychology 55

Figure 2. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about psychological skills

training on soccer players and teams …………………………

57

Figure 3. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about psychological skills

training on soccer coaches ………………………………………

60

Figure 4. Soccer coaches’ perspectives on sport psychologists ………. 62

Paper III

Figure 1. Activities, exercises and strategies used by coaches with their

players and teams ………………………………………………..

83

Figure 2. Psychological techniques employed by coaches with their

players and teams ………………………………………………..

86

Paper IV

Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension ……. 104

Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of imagery general dimension ………… 108

Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of goal-setting general dimension …… 110

Paper V

Figure1. Soccer players’ perspectives’ about the importance of

psychological skills training ……………………………………...

129

Figure 2. Soccer players’ perspectives’ and experiences regarding PST

interventions ……………………………………………………….

130

Paper VI

Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension ……. 150

Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the goal-setting general dimension … 152

Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of imagery general dimension ………… 155

Figure 4. Hierarchical structure of relaxation general dimension ………. 156

ix

List of tables

Paper I

Table 1. Year overview and journals …………………………………...… 37

Table 2. Research designs ………………………………………………... 38

Table 3. Data collection ……………………………………………………. 38

Table 4. Sample characteristics …………………………………………... 40

Table 4. PST focus category …..…………………………………………... 41

xi

Abstract

Despite the research on psychological skills training (PST) applied to soccer

has increased considerably in recent years, there are few studies regarding the

PST perspectives of elite soccer coaches and players - key elements of PST

process. This gap in literature is even more critical in Portuguese professional

soccer reality. Therefore, the purpose of this dissertation was to identify the

most frequently used methods (i.e., sample, research approach, and data

collection methods) in research on PST applied to soccer, as well as explore

the views of elite soccer coaches and players regarding the PST process in

Portuguese premier soccer league. To accomplish these aims we conducted a

systematic analysis of selected studies in the field of PST applied to soccer (i.e.,

28 articles), and developed five qualitative studies to explore the perspectives of

top-elite coaches (n=13) and players (n=16) concerning several aspects of PST.

Overall, the studies showed that the majority of soccer coaches and players

acknowledge the importance of PST process, and revealed receptiveness for

PST interventions. Nevertheless, the participants mentioned they didn’t use

PST programs systematically in their soccer routines. Data of the studies were

discussed and practical implications / recommendations were highlighted.

KEY-WORDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING, PSYCHOLOGICAL

TECNHIQUES, PORTUGUESE SOCCER, COACHES, PLAYERS.

xiii

Resumo

Apesar do estudo do treino das competências psicológicas (TCP) ter florescido

nos últimos anos, existe uma clara escassez de investigações acerca das

perspectivas dos treinadores e os jogadores de futebol relativamente ao

processo de TCP. Esta lacuna é ainda mais evidente quando analisa á luz do

panorama do futebol profissional em Portugal, onde os estudos conduzidos

nesta área são praticamente inexistentes. A presente dissertação procurou

identificar as metodologias de investigação mais frequentes nos estudos na

área do TCP aplicado ao futebol, bem como explorar as visões de treinadores e

jogadores de elite sobre o TCP na primeira liga Portuguesa de futebol

profissional. De modo a atingir os objectivos anteriormente definidos realizou-

se uma análise de revisão sistemática de artigos seleccionados (n=28) na área

do TCP aplicado ao futebol e desenvolveram-se cinco estudos qualitativos para

explorar o conhecimento sobre as perspectivas de alguns treinadores (n=13) e

jogadores (n=16) de elite. De um modo geral, os estudos evidenciaram que a

maioria dos treinadores reconheceram a importância do TCP e revelaram

receptividade para intervenções a este nível. No entanto, os participantes

mencionaram que na prática não utilizam programas de TCP. Os resultados

dos estudos foram discutidos e as implicações / recomendações práticas foram

destacadas.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: TREINO DAS COMPETÊNCIAS PSICOLÓGICAS,

TÉCNICAS PSICOLÓGICAS, FUTEBOL PORTUGUÊS, TREINADORES,

JOGADORES

xv

List of abbreviations

AAASP: Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology

FA: Football Association

FIFA: Fédération Internationale de Football Association (English: International

Federation of Football Association)

PP: Psychological Preparation

PPC: Psychological Preparation for a Competition

PST: Psychological Skills Training

SPs: Sport Psychologists

TCP: Treino de Competências Psicológicas

TTM: Transtheoretical Model

UEFA: Union of European Football Association

USA: United States of America

17


____________________

19


Since the earliest days of sport psychology , one of the most important

issues addressed by sport psychologists has been related to the psychological

skills training (PST) intended to aid people in making their performance more

effective (Gould & Eklund, 2007). Thus is not surprising that the PST in sport

has significantly evolved in in the last decade as the knowledge based has

expanded with a plethora of books describing the practice of PST as well as

journal articles focusing on psychological skills, PST interventions, and

professional practice issues (Vealey, 2007). Due to the availability of these

applied materials, the PST programs have increased substantially in quantity

and quality (Daw & Burton, 1994).

From early interventions to programmatic intervention models

According to the sport psychological literature, the Soviet Union was the

first country to systematically engage in psychological training with athletes and

coaches in 1950s (Ryba, Stambulova, & Wrisberg, 2005, Vealey, 2007,

Williams & Straub, 2006). In this context, one of the earliest contributing figures

to the field was the Russian Avksenty Cezarevich Puni who formalized their

theory in an applied model called Psychological Preparation for a Competition

(PPC; see: Puni, 1969, 1973), which included self-regulation of arousal,

confidence, attentional focusing, distraction control, and goal setting. The Puni's

theory continued to shape the development of psychological training in the

Soviet Union for over 50 years and his influence persists to the present day in

Russia and other East European countries (Ryba et al., 2005).

Despite the systematic practice and study of PST in sport in North

American did not emerge until the 1980, several pioneers began to work in this

field prior to this time (Vealey, 2007). In 1938, P.K. Wrigley, owner of the

Chicago Cubs professional baseball, hired the “father of sport psychology in

United States of America (USA)” – Coleman Griffith – to help improve the

team’s performance. Griffith and an assistant filmed and measured the players’

skills, attempting to build a psychological training program for the team (Green,

20

2003). Their intervention included practice management strategies for

enhanced learning and automation of skills, communication skills for coaches,

team dynamics and leadership development, goal setting, confidence building,

competitive simulation, a battery test for measuring players’ basic physical and

“visual” skills, and a recommendation that psychological testing and observation

to be included in scouting (Green, 2003; Vealey, 2007). Another historical figure

in this field was Dorothy Hazeltine Yates who worked with a collegiate boxers

team in the early 1940s (Kornspan, & MacCracken, 2001, Vealey, 2007). Yate’s

work with boxers consisted of an intervention called the “relaxation set-method”

(see Kornspan, & MacCracken, 2001). Furthermore, Yates also engaged in

controlled experimental investigations of the effectiveness of her psychological

intervention, with positive results (Vealey, 2007; Yates, 1943, 1957).

During the late 1970s, an interest in psychological training with athletes

emerged in the United States. The term PST was coined to describe techniques

and strategies designed to teach or enhance psychological skills that facilitate

performance and a positive approach to sport competition (Vealey, 1988). A

major premise of PST is that psychological skills (like physical skills) can be

taught and learned to a certain degree (Vealey, 1988).

Interest in PST has proliferated in North America during the 1980s

(Vealey, 1988, 2007). Several books outlining various PST approaches have

been published, a professional association (Association for the Advancement of

Applied Sport Psychology- AAASP) has been formed for researchers and

practitioners interested in PST applications (Vealey, 1988), and two new applied

journals (The Sport Psychology in 1987 and the Journal of Applied Sport

Psychology in 1989) were establish.

The evolution of PST in sport in the last years is impressive as the

knowledge based has grown and psychological practice has become more

sophisticated (Vealey, 2007). A plethora of books (e.g., Brewer, 2009; Hardy,

Jones, & Gould, 1996; Murphy, 1995; Smith & Bar-Eli, 2007; Tenenbaum &

Eklund, 2007; Weinberg & Gould, 2011) and journal articles focusing on PST

and professional practice issues have been published, the PST programs have

increased substantially in quantity and quality (Daw & Burton, 1994), and a

21

variety of models and frameworks has been advanced and discussed on PST

literature, over the last decades (e.g., Hardy, et al., 1996; Vealey, 2007).

Nowadays it is widely recognized that the PST involves a comprehensive

and complex process as opposed to the simple application of psychological

techniques. PST has matured form early interventions that focused on the

random application of psychological techniques, such as imagery and goal

setting, to programmatic intervention models (Vealey, 2007).

A closer look at the Vealey’s framework for understanding PST in sport

Figure 1. Vealey’s framework for understanding PST in sport

22

As illustrated in figure 1, Vealey (2007) argued that the PST process is a

complex, multilayer and integrative approach to developing psychological skills

in athletes and coaches. The mainly targets for PST are foundation,

performance, personal development, and team skills. According to Vealey

(2007), these types of psychological skills are very important for success and

well-being in athletes and coaches.

As shown in figure 1, the PST process is made up of hierarchical layers

that define the consultant’s approach to enhance psychological skills. The first

layer in the PST process is the consultant philosophy or the consultant’s beliefs

and values concerning the nature of psychological skills and PST. According to

Poczwardowski, Sherman, and Ravizza (2004), professional philosophy

significantly shapes the consultant’s approach to the essential elements of the

consulting process such as gaining entry, assessment, conceptualization of the

issue and the intervention, implementation, evaluation, and bringing closure to

the consulting relationship. These authors have conceptualized a hierarchical

structure of professional philosophy for sport psychology service delivery that is

consistent to the hierarchical layers point out in the Vealey framework (2007).

Several examples of consultant’s philosophies are available in the sport

psychology literature (e.g. Gordon, 1990; Loehr, 1990; Nideffer, 1989; Orlick,

1989; Ravizza, 1990; Salmela, 1989). According to Vealey (2007) the three

main philosophical differences in PST in sport have been: educational versus

clinical approaches, programed-centered versus athlete-centered approaches,

and performance enhancement versus development approaches.

The second layer in the PST process, emanating from philosophy, is the

model of intervention, or the overarching thematic framework from which

specific psychological strategies and techniques are developed and utilized

(Vealey, 2007). The PST literature abounds with the description of multiple

models of intervention (see Murphy, 1995; Vealey, 2007).

The third layer of the PST process is the strategies that emanate from

the consultant’s philosophy and intervention model. For Vealey (2007), the

strategies are “the organizational plans of action that operationalize how the

intervention specifically works, typically using sequential steps, multiple phases,

23

or the practical packaging of mental training techniques into a coherent,

integrative program” (p. 294). The author (2007) cited several examples of

psychological strategies that included the Five-Step Strategy (Singer, 1988), the

four-phase psychological skill program for close-skill performance enhancement

(Boutcher & Rotella, 1987), P3 Thinking and goal mapping (Vealey, 2005),

centering (Nideffer & Sagal, 2006), competition focus plans (Orlick, 1986), the

five-step approach to mental training using biofeedback (Blumenstein, Bar-Eli, &

Tenenbaum, 2002), and visuo-motor behavioral rehearsal (Suinn, 1993).

The final layer of the PST process is the techniques or methods used in a

PST strategy (Vealey, 2007). Examples of psychological techniques include

imagery, goal-setting, self-talk, relaxation, biofeedback training, performance

profiling, etc.

Finally, it should be noted when PST is coordinated by consultants, their

interpersonal (e.g., listening skills, being able to relate to athletes and coaches,

being open, flexible and trustworthy) and technical skills (e.g., ability to

relevantly apply concepts to create concrete, useful strategies for athletes and

coaches, the ability to adapt psychological training strategies and techniques to

fit specific personalities and situations) are critical in the effectiveness of the

PST process (Vealey, 2007). For the author, effective PST requires

interpersonally and technically skilled consultants, who are able to personally

and professionally fit PST programs to meet the special needs of athletes,

coaches, teams, and organizations.

As reviewed, significant advances have occurred in the last decades

regarding PST on sport. Nowadays, the PST literature abounds with the

description of multiple models and frameworks which give important guidelines

not only for gaining a better understanding of this complex process but also for

designing more specific and effective programs that better promote the

attainment of elite performance. In this regard the framework for understanding

PST in sport, presented by Vealey (2007) has been considered a valuable tool

for understand this complex process. Obviously other models and frameworks

24

are available in this field, but the intent has been to stimulate critical thinking

about this important service delivery component of sport psychology.

PST applied to soccer

Currently, it is widely accepted that psychological skills play a crucial role

on soccer performance (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004;

Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010). The analysis of public and private

statements made by soccer players, coaches, directors or fans, shows the

underpinning role of psychological dimension to the determination of outcomes

or performance levels shown by players and teams. Indeed, there is not a single

game where psychological factors are not evoked in an attempt to predict,

describe or interpret a player or team performance (Fonseca, 2004).

In this sense, it would be expected that PST plays a privileged role in

elite soccer. But is that what really happens? Is this acknowledgement related

to the importance of psychological factors translated into what is practiced on

the field? Does this area constitute one of the priorities of the training process?

And how exactly is that training implemented? What goals does it aim to

achieve?

On the other hand, it is important not only to think about the training of

players/teams’ psychological skills but also to consider the psychological

preparation of the soccer coach. The social-sportive framing of the soccer

coaches exposes them to a high psychological pressure since they are usually

subjected to a constant public exposure of their decisions, permanent

demanding of sports outcomes, unpredictability of the competition, among other

factors. The soccer coach is also constantly exposed to behavioral and

emotional fluctuations, on one day experiencing moments of frenzy glory and on

the other living moments of frustration, isolation and contempt. Coaches are not

machines at the service of a soccer club and thus it is worth noticing that they

are indeed affected by several factors which may influence their performance.

Based on the previous considerations, it would be expected that PST

also assume a crucial role in coaches’ psychological preparation. But is this a

reality? Do the coaches invest on their own psychological preparation? Do the

25

coaches contemplate the training of their own psychological skills? And, in

which molds is this training is processed? And, what are the goals that this

training aims to pursue?

Regarding the Portuguese soccer reality, several authors (Barreiros,

Silva, Freitas, Duarte, Fonseca, 2011; Fonseca, 1997; 2004) stressed that sport

psychology is not yet sufficiently valued which seems to compromise PST.

Furthermore the existence of a sport psychologist in Portuguese elite soccer

teams is the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004). The same author

stated that in 2004 there were only three psychologists in the Portuguese

Premier soccer league and this was the highest number ever found. Taken the

aforementioned considerations, several pertinent questions may be posed: Why

the inclusion of sport psychologists has not become an acquired procedure in

Portugal? What are the reasons/barriers to the inclusion of these specialists into

Portuguese soccer teams? Almost a decade of Fonseca’s (2004) statement, are

we still facing the same reality? Or can we find a growing number of sport

psychologists working in Portuguese soccer? Are the coaches and players

receptive to this kind of collaboration/intervention? Are coaches and players

aware of what can be done by the sport psychologists?

Given the importance of PST on sport performance and the relevance of

the previous questions, we would expect a high number of scientific studies

associated with PST applied to soccer. However, although recently PST

literature applied to soccer have increased in the number of experimental

studies supporting the positive influence of PST in soccer performance (e.g.,

Johnson et al., 2004; Thelwell, et al., 2010; 2006), there is still a considerable

lack of studies that examine soccer players and coaches’ perceptions regarding

this issue. This gap in literature is even more critical in Portuguese soccer

reality. Indeed, we could only identify one study that investigated soccer

coaches’ perceptions concerning different aspects of the psychological

dimension (see Barreiros, et al., 2011). According to Côté, Salmela, & Russell,

(1995), evolution comes from the description of specific work experiences. For

these authors, a profound analysis concerning the knowledge of coaches and

players may constitute an important contribute since success models may

26

provide insightful information to the improvement of current understanding on

this matter. Therefore, is a need to assess the views of Portuguese soccer

players’ and coaches’ regarding PST process. As Gilbert and Trudel (2004),

stated: “the development of any profession relies on research, training

programs and innovations in practice” (p. 388).

Given the above, the main purpose of this dissertation was to examine

the current state and use of PST in Portuguese soccer through the views

(perspectives) of elite soccer coaches and players.

Outline of the Doctoral Dissertation

This doctoral dissertation incorporates a group of papers that focus on

the research questions that underpin the thesis. We tried to organize this

dissertation with an evident research rationale that connected all the articles in

order to achieve the main goal of the thesis. Therefore, the dissertation is

organized into three sections, each of them with specific goals, as we explain

bellow.

In section I, we conducted a systematic review of research

methodologies employed in PST studies in soccer (paper I). We considered it

valuable to develop the dissertation according to the most up-to-date

information about the research methodology frequently used by investigators.

This is an important step to identify gaps in literature and suggest new

directions for further research. The following research questions were raised in

this first section:

1 – What are the sample characteristics of the studies in the field of

psychological skills applied to soccer (e.g., sample size, gender, mean age,

level of competition, participant´s focus, nationality) (paper I)?

2 – What is the research approach more frequently used (i.e., research

design) (paper I)?

3 – What are the data collection methods most preferred by the

researchers (paper I)?

In section II, we focused attention on the coaches’ views of PST. The

coach is an inseparable element of the training process and has great influence

27

on the psychological skills of players and teams. Additionally, the coach needs

to maximize his own psychological state in order to enhance his coaching

effectiveness. Buceta (1998) mentioned that the coach has a double function,

stimulating interpersonal skills that positively influence the psychological

preparation of their athletes, and regulating personal skills to optimize their own

psychological state. Thus, our aim was to explore the perspectives’ of elite

Portuguese coaches regarding (i) the psychological preparation and training of

psychological skills of soccer players and teams, as well as, (ii) their own

psychological preparation and training of psychological skills. This provides

valuable insights about the current state of PST in professional Portuguese

soccer. Therefore, we investigated the following research questions:

1 – What is the educational background on sports psychology of

Portuguese elite soccer coaches (paper II)?

2 – What are the coaches’ perspectives on the importance of PST of

soccer players and teams (paper II)?

3 – What are the coaches’ role on PST of their players and teams (paper

II and III)?

4 – How do soccer coaches prepare their players and teams

psychologically? What strategies do they apply? Where and for what purposes

do they apply it (paper III)?

5 - What are the coaches’ perspectives’ on the importance of PST of

soccer coaches (paper II)?

6 – Do the coaches use psychological techniques to improve their own

performance (paper IV)? Where, when and why do they use it?

7 – What are the coaches’ perspectives’ about the role of the sports

psychologists in soccer (paper II)?

In section III, we focused on soccer player’s views on PST. The soccer

player is the key element of the whole process of PST and he is the major

beneficiary of the improvement of psychological preparation. The goal was to

explore and analyze the perspectives of elite soccer players regarding their

psychological preparation and training of psychological skills. This analysis aims

to complement the knowledge already exposed in section II, providing a more

28

complete “frame” of the PST study. Therefore, the main research questions of

this section were:

1 – What is the importance assigned to PST by Portuguese elite soccer

players (paper V)?

2 – What are the player’s personal experiences regarding PST

interventions (paper V)?

3 – Do the player’s use psychological techniques in their soccer

routines? Where, when and why do they used it? (paper VI)

4 – What are the soccer players’ perspectives about the role of a sport

psychologist in soccer (paper V)?

At the final part of the dissertation the final conclusions are presented, as

well as some practical implications and recommendations for the future of the

PST in professional soccer.

29

Paper I

Psychological skills training applied to soccer: A systematic review

based on research methodologies 1

____________________

1 Accepted for publication at the Review of European Studies: vol.5, nº5, December

2013

31

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to provide a systematic review of studies on

psychological skills training (PST) applied to soccer from 1980 until the end of

2012. A total of 28 studies were evaluated and reported in five sections: year

overview and journals, research designs, data collection, sample characteristics

and PST focus category.PST articles applied to soccer were spread throughout

a wide range of journals and had a considerable growth during the 2008-12

period. Results also indicated that most of the research on PST applied to

soccer was experimental, longitudinal and combined quantitative and qualitative

data. Furthermore, the majority of studies focused on non-elite players with a

age under 16 and were conducted in North American countries. Critical and

innovative reflections were made in order to highlight potential research gaps

and to suggest new perspectives for further investigation.

Key-words: psychological skills training, soccer, research design, data

collection, sample characteristics

.

32

Introduction

Soccer is undoubtedly one of the most popular sports in the world,

engaging people worldwide as players, spectators and TV viewers (Haugaasen

& Jordet, 2012). A survey by the Fédération Internationale de Football

Association (FIFA) in 2006 reported that 265 million people regularly play

soccer (FIFA, 2007b), making soccer one of the most highly participated sports

in the world. In addition, large soccer events have in recent years drawn more

TV viewers than most other sporting events. The world cup tournament of 2006

had 27 billion accumulated viewers and the final alone attracted an audience of

more than 700 million (FIFA, 2007a). For Joseph S. Blater, FIFA president,

soccer popularity remains undiminished and is actually increasing (FIFA,

2007c).

This global access to soccer requires an optimal performance from all of

its practitioners, particularly, soccer players. In order to boost soccer players’

performance, researchers all over the world have actively studied these

practitioners in different areas of sports sciences, including sport psychology. In

this context, Psychological skills training (PST) research has emerged as an

important tool to support the psychological preparation of soccer players in the

accomplishment of higher performances (Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006,

2010).

The development of any profession relies on research, training

programmes and innovations in practice (Gilbert & Trudel, 2004). A detailed

analysis of published research provides a resource for those conducting

research in the area and for those reading the body of literature (Silverman &

Skonie, 1997). In order to overcome the limitations of traditional reviews or

narrative summaries, several authors (Littell, Corcoran, & Pillai, 2008; Noblit &

Hare, 1988) had promoted the development of systematic methods (i.e.,

systematic reviews and meta-analysis). Craig et al., (2008) stressed the

benefits of conducting systematic reviews in developing interventions and

designing future studies. According to Craig et al., systematic reviews allow

researchers to use the best available evidence and appropriate theories to

develop future research directions and intervention strategies, as well as to

33

raise awareness of the range of research methods employed in the study area.

However, systematic reviews analyzing research methods employed in PST

studies applied to soccer are clearly undeveloped. In fact, to our knowledge, no

research was identified with this specific purpose.

There are different ways to conduct research (i.e., experimental or

descriptive; cross-sectional or longitudinal; qualitative or quantitative), and

different research designs can provide different views about the same research

topic. Therefore, when it comes to answering specific questions, researchers

have to be critical about the advantages and disadvantages of each research

methodology and decide about the most appropriate research tools. In addition,

research quality is influenced by sample characteristics, particularly the level of

competition, nationality, gender and age of participants. If research trends

exhibited their focus on only one type of sample characteristic instead of setting

the parameter characteristics of the wider population, the research data would

have to face several limitations, since poor sampling is unhelpful for the

researcher (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007).

Given the above, it seems useful to conduct a systematic review of PST

studies applied to soccer in order to identify current knowledge of area under

study and future research directions. Thus the purpose of this study was to

provide a systematic review of studies on PST applied to soccer, focusing on

research designs, data collection methods, sample characteristics and focus

category. It should be noted, that we do not intend to appraise the quality or

suitability of the research methodologies developed by the investigators but to

examine the multiplicity of approaches employed.

Method

The current research design was based on similar recent systematic

reviews of literature on athletes’ career transition out of sport (Park, Lavallee, &

Tod, 2013) and self-talk-performance relationship (Tod, Hardy, & Oliver, 2011).

34

Search strategy

The search strategy included the use of the following electronic

databases: Google Scholar, PsycARTICLES, PsycBOOKS, PsycINFO,

SPORTDiscus, and Web of Knowledge. In addition to the computerized

database search we conducted a manual search of journals, including

International Education Studies, International Journal of Sport Psychology,

International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Journal of Applied

Sport Psychology, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, Journal of Sport

Behavior, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, Journal of Sports Sciences,

Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,

and The Sport Psychologist. The following search terms were used in

combination with “football” or “soccer”: PST, mental training, psychological

preparation, psychological strategies, psychological techniques, psychological

skills, imagery, self-talk, relaxation, and goal-setting

Inclusion criteria for the present investigation were as follows. Studies

had to be: a) related to PST on soccer, b) based on soccer population (groups

of soccer populations), c) written in English, and d) published in peer-reviewed

journals.

The focus of this search was only on research published in journals,

because it represents “a record of an area’s scholarships and provides a

foundation to understand research trends” (Silverman & Skonie, 1997, p. 300).

We acknowledge that other sources (e.g., dissertations, books, conference

proceedings) exist and should not be overlooked when seeking to understand,

or study the PST process. Nevertheless, “master’s theses and doctoral

dissertations are not easily accessible, and a rigorous review process is not

always required for books” (Gilbert & Trudel, 2004, p. 389). Finally, based on

the previous recommendations on conducting systematic reviews (Knipschild,

1995), we do not include the studies that had been published as abstracts or

conference proceedings.

35

Procedure and analysis

Hard copies of studies were collected and assessed against the inclusion

criteria. Once studies met the selection criteria, we analysed their content based

on similar systematic review procedures used by several authors (Goodger,

Gorely, Lavallee, & Harwood, 2007; Park et al., 2013; Sallis, Prochaska, &

Taylor, 2000; Tod et al., 2011).

Each study was listed alphabetically according to the first author and

assigned with a reference number. All papers included in the current

systematic review are indicated in the reference list with an asterisk (*). Data

tables were developed to reflect published research articles, research designs,

sample characteristics and PST focus category.

Three authors familiar with the field of PST and with experience at

employing a variety of qualitative analysis techniques coded the data

independently and crossed results. Every time disparities were spotted, the

researchers discussed the most suitable changes. Through discussion, a

consensus and final coding of the data were agreed between all three

researchers.

Results

Results are presented according to: (a) year overview and journals, (b)

research designs, (c) data collection, (d) sample characteristics, and (e) PST

focus category.

General findings

Following the aforementioned search strategy, 46 studies were initially

identified as being potentially relevant for the review. However, an initial

screening procedure excludes 18 papers for the following reasons: i) book

chapters (3), ii) unpublished dissertations (3), iii) unpublished documents (4), iv)

non-English written papers (8). Consequently, a final count of 28 studies was

considered for the purpose of the data collection.

36

Year overview and journals

Table 1 provides an overview of the publication year and journals. PST

articles applied to soccer were spread throughout a wide range of journals. The

first PST articles applied to soccer emerged in the early 1990s. Since then, this

kind of study clearly experienced a large increase in the annual publication

mean, from 0.5 articles published yearly in the early 1990s to 4.0 articles

published annually most recently. During the 2008-12 period the number of

articles published had considerable growth. PST articles applied to soccer were

spread throughout a wide range of journals.

Research design

Table 2 depicts results regarding the research design employed in the

selected studies. The present review highlighted a marked imbalance between

the experimental and descriptive studies, with a large predominance of the

former over the latter. At this level it is also important to note that 11 of the

experimental studies did not use a control group (i.e. quasi-experimental

studies). Investigators used longitudinal designs more frequently than cross

sectional methods. Over half of the PST studies applied to soccer employed

mixed methods. In addition quantitative methods were used in nine studies

while only three studies employed qualitative research methods.

Data collection

As seen in table 3, the majority of the studies collected data via

questionnaires and observation. The most frequently used questionnaire was

the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ: Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998;

and SIQ-C: Hall, Munroe-Chandler, Fishburne, & Hall, 2009;) employed in three

studies (Jordet, 2005; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, & Shannon, 2005;

Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012) and two studies (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, &

Fishburne, 2008; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, Murphy, & Hall, 2012)

respectively.

37

Table 1. Year overview and journals

Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)

Year Overview

• 1992 – 1995 1, 23 2 (7.1)

• 1996 – 1999 7 1 (3.6)

• 2000 – 2003 2, 28 2 (7.1)

• 2004 – 2007 9, 10, 13, 16, 19, 20, 25 7 (25)

• 2008 – 2012 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 22,

24, 26, 27

16 (57.2)

Note: The years were delineated into 4-year periods for comparison across equal periods of time

Journals

• Journal of Applied Sport

Psychology

3, 5, 6, 10, 23, 25 6 (21.4)

• The Sport Psychologist 7, 9, 17, 18 4 (14.3)

• Journal of Sports Science 1, 14 2 (7.1)

• Journal of Sport Behavior 26, 28 2 (7.1)

• Asian Journal of Sports Medicine 8, 24 2 (7.1)

• Psychology of Sport and Exercise 15 1 (3.6)

• European Journal of Sport

Science

16 1 (3.6)

• Journal of Sports Science and

Medicine

4 1 (3.6)

• Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis

2 1 (3.6)

• International Education Studies 22 1 (3.6)

• Perceptual and Motor Skills 19 1 (3.6)

• Journal of Human Movement

Studies

20 1 (3.6)

• Imagination, Cognition and

Personality

13 1 (3.6)

• Journal of Education and Practice 21 1 (3.6)

• Physical Education and Sport

Pedagogy

12 1 (3.6)

• Procedia- Social and Behavior

Sciences

27 1 (3.6)

• Scottish Journal of Arts, Social Sciences and Scientific Studies

11

1 (3.6) Studies’ reference numbers: 1 (Blair, Hall, & Leyshon, 1993); 2 (Brobst & Ward, 2002); 3 (Burton,

Gillham, & Glenn, 2011); 4 (Edvardsson, Ivarsson, & Johnson, 2012); 5 (Gucciardi, Gordon, &

Dimmock, 2009a); 6 (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009b); 7 (Hale & Whitehouse, 1998); 8

(Hashim & Yusof, 2011); 9 (Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004); 10 (Jordet, 2005); 11

(Kerkez, Kulak, & Aktas, 2012); 12 ( Maitland & Grevis, 2010); 13 (Munroe-Chandler & Hall,

2004); 14 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & Fishburne, 2008); 15 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne,

Murphy & Hall, 2012); 16 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne & Shannon, 2005); 17 (O & Munroe-

Chandler, 2008); 18 (Pain, Harwood, & Anderson, 2011); 19 (Papaioannou, Ballon, Theodorakis,

& Auwelle, 2004); 20 Papanikolaou, Nikolaidis, Patsiaouras, & Lazou, 2004); 21 (Papanikolaou,

Voutselas, Mantis, & Laparidis, 2012); 22 (Sadeghi, Omar-Fauzee, Jamalis, Ab-Latif, & Cheric,

2010); 23 (Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994); 24 (Seif-Barghi, Kordi, Memari, Ali-Mansournia, &

Jalali-Ghomi, 2012); 25 (Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006); 26 (Thelwell, Greenlees, &

Weston, 2010); 27 (Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012); 28 (Voight & Callaghan, 2001b)

38

Table 2. Research designs


Research design

• Descriptive 3, 6, 12, 14, 22, 23, 27/1 7 (25)

• Experimental 1*, 2, 4*, 5*, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11*, 13*, 15, 16, 17*, 18, 19*, 20*,

21*, 24*, 25, 26, 27/2*, 28

22 (78.6)

• Cross-Sectional 3, 6, 7, 12, 14, 22, 23, 27/1 8 (28.6)

• Longitudinal 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25,

26, 27/2, 28

21 (75)

• Qualitative 6, 12, 22 3 (10.7)

• Quantitative 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 14, 19, 21, 23 9 (32.1)

• Mix Methods 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 24, 25, 26, 271, 28 16 (57.2)

Notes: * Studies using experimental and control group

Paper 27 reported multiple studies and consequently we assigned it with an additional the same sub number:

27/1 ( Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012, study 1), 27/2 ( Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012)

271

- 27/1 + 27/2

Table 3. Data collection


Data Collection

• Interviews 6, 9, 10, 12, 18, 22, 24 7

• Observation 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26,

27/2,

16

• Questionnaires 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25, 26,

27/1, 28

19

OSSTPQ 3

TSCI 3

TEOSQ 3

MPS 3

SAS 3, 4

OSDBQ 3

LESCA 4

ACSI-28 4

AFMTI 5

DRS 5

DFS-2 5

39

Sample characteristics

The analysis of the PST literature applied to soccer allowed a clear

picture of the types of samples that researchers have employed (Table 4). As a

result, we are able to highlight sampling gaps. The majority of the studies

included or relied exclusively on soccer players. Regarding the gender analysis,

approximately one third of the studies did not provide gender information. When

gender was identified, 11 of the studies contained male participants only, six

contained both genders and seven contained female participants only.

Inspection of table 4 also reveals that nearly one third of the studies (32.1%)

employed samples with a mean age under 16, while none of the studies

reported samples with a mean age over 25. With respect to the competitive

level, the studies included a range of competitive levels, but focus was mainly

on non-professional players. The majority of the studies were conducted in

North American countries (n=11) (particularly in Canada and USA). Eight

Table 3. continued


CEF 5

CSAI-2 7, 14

POMS-A 8

SIQ 10, 16, 27

SIQ-C 14, 15

SEQ-S 14

MIQ-R 15, 17

MIQ 18

FSS 18

BMRI-2 18

IUQ-SP 23

TTCT 27

CEF 28

Social validation 2, 5, 25, 26

Not validated 1

• Others

1

1, 4, 7, 11, 15, 18 6

Notes: Each article may have included more than one method of data collection, and, therefore, the sum

of the category total is greater than the 28 articles in the database.

Others 1

: Stopwatch; daily record; polares; MP3; biofeedback instruments (galvanic skin response – GSR;

heart rate variability - HRV).

40

studies had been conducted in Europe, while five studies did not identify where

data originated.

Table 4. Sample characteristics


Participant type

• Players 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12,13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,

19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28

24 (85.8)

• Players and coaches 2, 9 2 (7.1)

• Players, coaches and

parents

5, 6 2 (7.1)

Mean Age

• Under 16 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 15, 16, 20, 27 9 (32.1)

• 16-20 1, 4, 12, 17, 28 5 (17.9)

• 21-25 7, 10, 18, 19, 21 5 (17.9)

• Range Given 2, 11, 13, 14, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 9 (32.1)

Participant level

• Competitive travelling 13, 14, 16 3 (10.7)

• High school / University 1, 2, 4, 7, 17, 18, 21, 22, 25 9 (32.2)

• Club Regional level 3, 9, 26, 27, 28 5 (17.9) Youth leagues 5, 6, 15, 20, 24 5 (17.9)

• Professional / Elite 10, 12 2 (7.1)

• Mixed 19, 23 2 (7.1)

• Not Specified 8, 11 2 (7.1)

Gender

• Females 1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 16, 28 7 (25)

• Males 5, 7, 10, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27 11 (39.3)

• Both Genders 4, 12, 14, 15, 17, 23 6 (21.4)

• Not specified 6, 8, 19, 26 4 (14.3)

Location

• North America 1, 3, 9, 13,14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 23, 28 11 (39.3)

• Europe 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 26 8 (28.6)

• Asia 22, 27 2 (7.1)

• Australia 5, 6 2 (7.1)

• Not identified 2, 8, 20, 24, 25 5 (17.9)

41

PST focus category

An overview of the PST focus category is presented in Table 5. All of the

PST studies were targeted at soccer players. In addition, the majority of the

research occurred in a training or competition context, while only two studies

occurred within laboratory conditions.

Discussion

The present study aimed to provide a systematic review of the research

methodologies employed in PST studies applied to soccer. Although PST

research proliferated in North America during the 1980s (Vealey, 2007), our

findings showed that PST soccer research only had a consistent development

since 2004. Indeed, before the Nineties, PST research applied to soccer seems

to be almost non-existent. One possible explanation is that the majority of PST

research until the 1990’s was targeted for athletes in general rather than

athletes of specific sports (Vealey, 1988). A further explanation may be related

to the lower popularity of soccer in the USA (where the first sport psychology

journals emerged). In a content analysis of PST approaches published in North

Table 5. PST focus category


PST Target

Toward soccer players 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28

28(100)

Toward soccer coaches - 0 (0)

Environment / Context

Competition 5, 10, 18, 24, 25, 26 6 (21.4)

Training 1, 3, 11, 14 , 15, 16, 17, 19, 20 9 (32.2)

Training and comp. 2, 9, 2 (7.1)

Laboratory conditions 4, 8 2 (7.1)

Not specific 6, 7,12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28 9 (32.2)

42

America between 1980 and 1988, Vealey (1988) stated that 74% of the studies

were targeted for athletes in general and only 26% were targeted for athletes in

specific sports. PST approaches targeted for specifc sports included golf

(Keogh & Smith, 1985; Rotella & Bunker, 1981), body building (Kubistant,

1988), skiing (Loudis, Lobitz, & Singer, 1986), basketball (Mikes, 1987) and

tennis (Weinberg, 1988).

Boutcher and Rotella (1987) emphasize that PST must be structured

according to the specific characteristics and demands of a particular sport to be

effective. However sport-specific programmes are more the exception than the

rule (Birrer & Morgan, 2010). “This is remarkable, bearing in mind that the

performance-relevant tasks of say a soccer player and a 200m breaststroke

swimmer are very different” (Birrer & Morgan, 2010, p. 79). Toward this end,

PST soccer articles have been published in several academic journals,

particularly in the last few years. This can be considered a positive trend for

researchers, as there appears to be a broad spectrum of journals from which to

select when submitting PST studies applied to soccer. However, this increase of

PST soccer studies also creates a new challenge for researchers and

practitioners because new substantial contributions to specific scientific

knowledge are required. Therefore, it seems important to assess current

research methodologies employed in PST studies applied to soccer (“what was

done”) and to reflect on new directions or approaches that researchers may

have to adopt to contribute to the growth of this field (“what needs to be done”).

In terms of research designs our findings highlighted a prevalence of

experimental over descriptive studies. Although experimental designs are a

useful strategy for the examination of different variable relationships, they do

not explain in detail the state of art about a specific phenomenon. Therefore,

more descriptive studies are needed in the study of PST in soccer.

Furthermore, descriptive research allows a measure of status, which is useful to

develop the theoretical framework on which experimental research is based.

On the other hand, the examined studies pointed out a dominance of

longitudinal approaches. Take into consideration the issue of the present

review, i.e. PST, this finding can be considered a positive trend. Longitudinal

43

studies provide rich data that can trace changes overtime with great accuracy

(Cohen et al., 2007). These types of studies describe a variety of designs that

are conducted over a period of time on the same sample group. For example,

longitudinal designs are crucial to determine if the soccer players properly

learned to use their psychological skills. In addition, longitudinal designs are

also crucial to examine the influence and efficacy of PST interventions over

time.

Over half of the PST studies applied to soccer used mixed methods,

which is in agreement with the recommendations of several authors (Gratton &

Jones, 2004; Page, Martin, & Wayda, 2001; Robbins & Dummer, 2001). Gratton

and Jones (2004) stressed the importance of mixing methods combining

quantitative and qualitative data. Triangulation of data (i.e. the use of multiple

means of data to examine a single phenomenon) can strengthen the validity of

the research. Another advantage is the complementary of both qualitative and

qualitative methods, providing a global and in-depth exploration of the

phenomenon simultaneously (Gratton & Jones, 2004). If research about a

specific phenomenon shows an imbalance between the use of quantitative and

qualitative methods, it is possible that findings may be biased.

The high reliance on questionnaires and systematic observation pointed

out in the present review emphasizes the need for researchers in this field to

use a more diverse array of research methods. A theoretical and applied

context would be profitable with a diversity of multi-method approaches.

Questionnaires and quantitative methodologies alone are not enough to

completely understand this phenomenon (i.e. PST in soccer), and qualitative

instruments must also be employed. The use of interviews, for example,

provides the researcher with a more holistic and contextualized knowledge

about the problem and produces relevant information which is not always

provided by other assessment methods (Valles, 1999). For the Vealey (1988)

“information such as this can facilitate the development of salient and

appropriate PST approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332). The

deep understanding of athletes’ self-perceptions, beliefs and opinions about

their knowledge of, use of, and importance placed on PST, could enhance the

44

PST interventions and increase the number of soccer players adhering to

intervention programmes. What is the importance assigned to the PST by

soccer players? Which psychological skills they considered most important for

their performance? What are the psychological strategies that they used in their

soccer routines? Where, when and why do they used them? Are they receptive

to PST interventions? What are their personal experiences regarding PST

interventions?

Regarding sample characteristics, the majority of reviewed studies

comprised a sample composed of young and non-elite soccer players.

Targeting youth soccer players can be considered a positive trend. According to

several authors (Cruz, 1984; Vealey, 1988), the perspectives of adhesion and

success of this type of programme will be radically different if, instead of

focusing on experienced athletes, it is geared to younger athletes. In addition,

“PST with younger athletes can be especially effective rewarding as a means of

helping youngsters develop appropriate psychological skills for sport

competition” (Vealey, 1988, p. 323). As Orlick (1982) stated if we expose

youngsters to stressful situations such as organized competitive sport, we have

a responsibility to teach them strategies to cope with that stress.

On the other hand a possible reason for the lack of studies with elite

soccer players could include the extreme difficulty for contact between

researchers and these practitioners. Indeed the great popularity of elite soccer

players make them practically inaccessible for the majority of the researchers. It

should be noted however, that the study of elite athletes can provides useful

insights into the current state of PST in a specific-sport (Calmels, d’Arripe-

Longueville, Fournier, & Soulard, 2003; Fletcher & Hanton, 2003), as well as

valuable information for practitioners (Bull, 1991; Leffingwell, Durand-Bush,

Wurzberger, & Cada, 2005). Therefore, more studies with elite soccer players

are needed in the study area.

The official survey of FIFA revealed that in 2006 only 26 million (10%) of

the 265 million players actively involved in soccer worldwide were women and

girls (FIFA, 2007b). Indeed women's football has shown slow growth, mainly

due to social and cultural barriers that restrain women’s participation in this

45

sport (FIFA, 2007d). Surprisingly, the results from the present review showed a

balance between participant gender patterns. It should be noted, however that

this finding may be connected with the high number of studies conducted in

North America countries, specifically in Canada and USA, where women’s

football have large popularity. The considerable number of studies devoted

exclusively to female samples can be considered important to emphasise the

need for PST, as well as to help this gender to overcome some of the social

barriers that they still face in some of the countries.

Another relevant finding highlighted by the present review was the

expressive interest that researchers have on PST studies targeted for soccer

players. It is widely recognized that the soccer player is a central figure in the

PST process. However we cannot forget that several other practitioners,

particularly the soccer coach, have a large influence on this process. According

to Vealey (1988), coaches “have been long viewed as a key in the PST

process, as they must enthusiastically endorse the skills and techniques being

taught and implemented with their athletes” (p. 323). Therefore, future research

should try to overcome this evident lack of literature. What is the opinion of

soccer coaches regarding the training of psychological skills in soccer players

and teams? What is their role in this process? How do they prepare their

players psychologically? What psychological strategies and techniques do they

often employed? Where, when and why they use it? Are they receptive to work

with sport psychologists?

Additionally, it should be noted that the coaches also needs to maximize

his own psychological state in order to enhance his coaching effectiveness.

Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002) stated “that coaches are often

required to deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete

performance-related issues, decision making) while ensuring that their own

psychological and emotional states remain optimal” (p. 38). It is clear that

coaches have special needs of their own and would benefit from PST

programming specifically designed for them (Vealey, 1988). Thus, a more detail

understanding of this specific area of research (i.e., PST programmes toward to

soccer coaches) is also necessary. What are the soccer coaches’ opinions

46

about the PST toward to themselves? What else they do to prepare themselves

psychologically for their job? Do coaches use psychological techniques in their

coaching routines? Where, when and why they use it? Are they receptive to

sport psychologist interventions?

Finally, the results from our review showed a balance between the

research employed in training and competition settings. This is an encouraging

finding, because sport psychology research (Gould, Flett, & Bean, 2009) has

exposed the equivalent importance of training and competition in psychological

preparation. Further research should explore more fully the use and effects of

PST in different time frames (before, during and after) of both environments.

There are a number of limitations associated with the current study that

ought to be acknowledged. Indeed, the search terms employed and the

exclusion of the non-English studies may have resulted in the omission of

relevant, high-quality literature. Furthermore, it is also possible that the

exclusion criteria were too many or too restrictive.

Conclusion

Research in the area of PST applied to soccer has increased

considerably in recent years, as reflected in the growing number of studies. To

date, investigators have contributed to a better understanding of PST in soccer,

however there is still much to explore and further research is needed.

The current systematic review reported the current research

methodologies employed in PST soccer studies (“what was done”) and

highlighted limitations in this field (“what needs to be done”). Suggestions for

future directions for PST applied to soccer have been pointed out. These

suggestions have included targeting expert and elite soccer players, targeting

coaches in addition to soccer players, increasing descriptive designs to explore

in detail the state of art of the PST process in soccer, develop multi-methods for

examining the PST process, explore more deeply the use and effects of PST in

training and competition settings. It is hoped that these suggested directions

may facilitate productive growth and development in the PST applied to soccer

research.

47

Paper II

What do coaches think about psychological skills training in soccer?

A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams 2

____________________

2 Freitas, S., Dias, C., & Fonseca A. (2013). What do coaches think about

psychological skills training in soccer? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams.

International Journal of Sports Science, 3(3), 81-91. doi: 10.5923/j.sports.20130303.04

49

Abstract

It is widely recognized that the coach is a key element in the psychological skills

training (PST) process. However PST research targeting coaches is very

limited, specifically in a soccer context. Therefore, 13 elite coaches from

Portuguese Premier Soccer League were interviewed to explore their thinking

about PST process. It was also our aim to examine the coaches’ educational

background in sport psychology, as well as their opinions about the role of sport

psychologists in soccer. Content analysis of the data revealed that participants

acknowledge the importance of PST and the role of the sport psychologist in

elite soccer. Nevertheless, participants seem to be unprepared to implement

and conduct PST programs. A list of barriers to PST interventions in soccer also

emerged from the data. Findings provide several applied implications for

practitioners (coaches, directors and sport psychologists). They also serve as a

guide to future research and contribute to the development of more specific and

effective PST interventions with soccer players and coaches.

Key-words: psychological skills training, elite soccer, sport psychologists

.

50

Introduction

The main goal of psychological skills training (PST) is to assist sport

participants in the development of psychological skills to achieve performance

success and personal well-being (Vealey, 2007). PST comprises of a

systematic and consistent practice of psychological skills for the purpose of

enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and

physical activity self-satisfaction (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). In order to enhance

the psychological preparation of athletes, coaches and teams a systematic PST

is required (Figone, 1999). According to several studies, PST programs have

been shown to be an effective strategy for improving athletic performance in a

wide variety of sports (Blakeslee & Golf, 2007; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001). In

this sense, the study of PST has emerged as one of the main topics in sport

psychology.

A successful implementation of PST programs is dependent on the head

coach because he or she is the manager of the team. Therefore a need exists

for an examination of coaches PST knowledge. An in-depth examination of

expert coaches’ knowledge would enhance the development and standards of

PST programs for coaches and athletes (Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995).

According to Côté et al., it becomes important to examine in more depth the

knowledge domain of expert coaches in order to provide useful insights to sport

psychologists and new coaches concerning the art of intervening with athletes.

It is also important to think not only of the psychological preparation of

athletes and coaches in general but also the PST programs for a specific sport.

In fact, the different psychological skills, variables and techniques do not exert

the same influence in achieving success across the different sports. Thus in

attempting to prepare specific PST programs for a certain sport it is crucial to

examine the knowledge of the coaches of this sport.

In this regard some PST studies were conducted with tennis (Gould,

Medbery, Damarjian, & Lauer, 1999) and netball (Grobbelaar, 2007) coaches.

Grobbelaar reported that despite the fact that 89,9 % of the netball coaches

regard PST as very important, only 46,43% implement PST programmes

themselves or made use of sport psychologists. This same author also found

51

that goal-setting, self-confidence, and concentration were the most frequently

implemented skills by the coaches who implemented PST programs. Similarly,

Gould et al., (1999) indicated that enjoyment/fun, focus/concentration, self-

confidence, emotional control, honesty/integrity, motivation/passion, and

positive self-talk/ thinking were the most important psychological skills for junior

tennis players to develop. These authors stated that while the junior tennis

coaches felt that they were fairly knowledgeable in sport psychology their PST

knowledge was more influenced by the experience of working with the players

rather than by formal courses or books. According to several studies, trial-and-

error learning becomes a common procedure among strategies for

psychological preparation (Gould et al., 1999; Sullivan & Hodge, 1991).

Although PST is recognized as an invaluable training tool by coaches of

various sports (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar, 2007; Ottley, 2000; Sullivan &

Hodge, 1991), it is often excluded from coaching practices because some

coaches can be unwilling to implement PST programs and express a negative

view point towards using a sport psychologist. Possible explanations for this

trend include several stigmas toward PST. A lack of PST knowledge was

suggested to be a primary reason why coaches often fail to implement PST

programs with their athletes (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar, 2007; Ottley,

2000). In this context, a recent study showed that 98,4% of coaches of elite

athletes recognized a need for more support in the area of PST (Reade et al.,

2009). The lack of time for the coaches to teach psychological skills is another

frequent barrier to justify the lack of psychological interventions (Gould et al.,

1999). The lack of finance is also identified as a common barrier for the

inclusion of sport psychologists within a team’s staff (Voight & Callaghan,

2001a). Another recurrent barrier that sport psychologists have to face is the

stigma that links the sport psychologist to a “shrink”. Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel,

and Lounsbury (1997) stated that the athletes that approach a sport

psychologist may fear being stigmatized by the coach or team-mates for having

psychological problems.

According to Hanrahan, Grove and Lockwood (1990) better results could

be reached if a sport psychologist was responsible for conducting the PST

52

program. Since the coaches have the power to allow or not allow the

interference of external collaborators (e.g., sport psychologists) in their

coaching process (Morris, 1997), their attitude regarding to the sport

psychologist will interfere with the degree of adherence in PST programs

expressed by athletes.

Although the aforementioned studies (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar,

2007) offer valuable insight into the PST with athletes, it should be noted that

they do not include the psychological preparation of the coaches. According to

Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002), coaches are often required to

deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete

performance related issues, decision making) while also ensuring that their own

psychological and emotional states remain optimal. For Vealey (2007), the

purpose of PST is to assist athletes and coaches in the development of

psychological skills to achieve performance success and personal well-being.

Therefore, a more detailed understanding of this area of research is necessary,

because as Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, and Hutchings (2008a) stated, “the

coach can, or should be considered a performer” (p. 38).

Despite being the centre of much public interest and media attention

worldwide, little is known about the PST knowledge of expert soccer head

coaches. For Potrac, Jones, and Cushion (2007) it could be suggested that

there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding the top-level soccer coaches

and the means and methods that they utilize in their respective quests to

produce successful soccer players and teams.

Given the above, a need exists to examine the expert soccer head

coach’s knowledge and opinions regarding the PST in soccer. Thus, the present

study with coaches of Portuguese elite teams was designed to examine their: a)

educational background on sport psychology, b) perspectives on PST with

soccer players and teams (including importance of PST, crucial psychological

skills, ability to conduct PST programs, and roadblocks to PST), c) perspectives

on PST with themselves, and d) receptiveness to work with sport psychologists.

53

Method

Participants

The sample of the current study was composed of 13 male professional

Portuguese high-level soccer coaches, who ranged in age from 43 to 63 (50.6 ±

5.8 years; mean ± SD). Their experience as soccer coaches ranged from 10 to

29 years. The sample was selected based upon the following criteria: i) have

worked, or currently work with “elite-level” athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, &

Coughlan, 2005), ii) be employed by their respective governing bodies of sport

(national squads) or by professional clubs (Thelwell et al., 2008b), and iii) had a

minimum of ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom, Durand-Bush, &

Salmela, 1997; Sedgwick, Côté, & Dowd, 1997).

At the time of the interview, all the participants occupied head coach

positions in Portuguese Premier League soccer clubs. Furthermore all of the

soccer coaches had the highest level of the Union of European Football

Associations (UEFA) coaching qualification: UEFA Pro License. This research

was reviewed and approved by the commission responsible for the ethical

issues. All coaches gave their informed consent to participate in the study.

Instruments

A semi-structure interview guide was used to conduct the interviews. The

interview guide was developed based on the interview protocol of Taylor and

Schneider (1992) and was organized into five sections. Section 1 contained

demographic information and other introductory comments. In this section

participants were informed about the purpose of the study and the structure of

the interview. Several brief key definitions (e.g., “sport psychology”,

“psychological skills”, “psychological techniques” and “psychological skills

training”) were clarified for the participants in order to establish rapport and to

orient them to the interview process. Section 2 analysed the coaches’

educational background on sport psychology (e.g., Did you have formal

education in sport psychology? Where did your sport psychology knowledge

come from?). Section 3 examined the importance assigned to PST in soccer

(e.g., What is your opinion about the importance of PST in soccer? Which

54

psychological skills do you consider crucial for soccer players and the team’s

performance? ). Section 4 explored the coaches’ perceptions regarding the

sport psychologist services in soccer (e.g., What is your opinion about the

importance of sport psychologists in soccer? Are you receptive to work with

these experts?).The last section of the interview guide provided the opportunity

for any final comments and summary questions from both the interviewer and

interviewee.

Procedures

All interviews were conducted face-to-face by the first author of the

present investigation. The interviewer had previous experience as assistant

soccer coach in the Portuguese Premier League and was therefore familiar with

the history, experiences and terminology used by the participants. For Lincoln

and Guba (1985), this was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the

data collection. Each interview lasted between 60 and 90 minutes and was

conducted face to face in an environment comfortable for the participants. Nine

of the 13 interviews took place in the coaches’ office before or after a training

session. Of the remaining interviews, three were conducted in the coach’s

home, and one in a hotel room.

Data analysis

Interviews were analysed in a process of inductive-deductive content

analysis (Patton, 2002), which consisted of several steps. First, interviews were

transcribed, read and reread by the first author in order to become completely

familiar with the content. Second, raw data themes i.e. quotes or paraphrasing

to represent a meaningful point or thought, were identified and coded. Different

levels of coding were developed to refine categories until saturation of data was

reached. First-order subthemes, second- order subthemes and general

dimensions were established according to a progressive level of higher

abstraction. Next, in order to establish trustworthiness, all findings were

presented and discussed with another author to serve as a “devil advocate”

(Marshall & Rossman, 1995). After discussion, different suggestions were

55

presented, changes were made as appropriate and a final consensus was

reached. Finally, the first author checked all the findings again in depth to

provide a validity check.

Results

The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions that

emerged from 66 raw data themes identified by the participants. The

dimensions were abstracted from 14 second-order subthemes and these from

25 first-order subthemes represented in figures 1-4.

Educational background in sport psychology

This dimension comprised of the coaches’ education in sport psychology.

Eight raw data themes were included in this dimension and two second-order

subthemes were used to define it (Figure 1).

Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes

Second Order subthemes

General Dimension

• Sport Science (n=4)

• Contact with Sport Psychology discipline (n=3)

Academic courses

(n=4)

Educational background

Formal education

• UEFA pro licence (n=13)

• UEFA advanced licence (n=13)

• Contact with sport psychology contents (n=9)

Soccer coaching courses (n=13)

• Experience as coach (n=8)

• Trial and error learning (n=6)

• Experience as athlete (n=4)

Personal experiences

(n=11)

Personal experience

Figure 1. Soccer coaches’ educational background in sport psychology

Note: The number following each raw data theme and below the first order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them

56

The formal education of the participants in sport psychology was based

on academic courses (n=4) and coaching training courses (n=13). Four

participants indicated having contact with sport psychology discipline in their

sports science academic courses. They also referred to additional contact with

sport psychology discipline due to their participation in soccer coaching training

courses. However, others coaches mentioned that their only formal

psychological education was the hours of sport psychology within their soccer

coaching courses. For example, one participant stated:

I haven’t got any academic education. The only study I’ve had has been

my soccer course at level III and IV. A discipline with sports psychology

content exists within these courses and this is the only formal education

I’ve received.

Eleven participants also mentioned that their knowledge in sport

psychology resulted from their personal experiences, such as their own

experience as elite player and coach. The following quote clearly expresses this

specific view:

My knowledge of sport psychology results from my personal

experience…I was a professional player for 12 years and I’ve been a

coach for 30 years... I’ve already orientated a lot of teams, lots of groups

and players from different cultures and with different personalities. All this

experience has made me acquire a considerable knowledge in this area.

PST with soccer players and teams

The second dimension is related to the coaches’ perspective about the

PST with soccer players and teams. This dimension included 27 raw data

subthemes that were grouped into four second order subthemes: importance of

PST, crucial psychological skills, ability to conduct PST and roadblocks to PST

with soccer players and teams (Figure 2).

57



General Dimension

• Very important (n=5)

• Crucial in elite soccer (n=4)

• One of the most important factors of performance (n=2)

• Needed to stay at top (n=1)

• Helps to achieve high level results (n=1)

Importance of PST (n=13)

Importance of PST with

soccer players and teams

PST with soccer

players and teams

• Concentration (n=5)

• Self-confidence (n=4)

• Motivation (n=3)

• Stress management (n=2)

Psychological skills (n=11)

Crucial psychological

skills for soccer players and

teams

• Team cohesion (n=4)

• Team confidence (n=2)

• Team motivation (n=2)

Team skills (n=5)

• Goal setting (n=1) P. techniques (n=1)

• Ability to sacrifice (n=3)

• Responsibility as elite player (n=2)

• Decision Making (n=1)

• Manage to failure (n=1)

• Manage to success (n=1)

Other psychological

attributes (n=5)

• Feel prepared due to their experience (n=3)

Feel prepared to conduct PST

(n=3)

Ability to

conduct PST programs with players and

teams

• Used some psychological techniques but not regularly (n=1)

• Did not feel prepared to use PST regularly (n=10)

Feel unprepared to conduct

PST (n= 10)

• Lack of PST knowledge (n= 9)

• Lack of time (n=2)

• Lack of players’ interested (n=1)

• Lack of practical resources (n=1)

• Current materials too complex (n=1)

• Difficult to evaluate PST success (n= 1)

Roadblocks to PST

(n=10)

Roadblocks to PST with

players and teams

Figure 2. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about PST on soccer players and teams

58

In the first second-order subtheme, the coaches were unanimous in

recognizing the importance of the PST with soccer players and teams. In

particular coaches considered PST as very important (n=5), as crucial in elite

soccer (n=4), as one of the most important factors of performance (n=4), as

needed to stay at the top (n=1) and to achieve high level results (n=1). The

following quote clearly express one of these specific views:

I think that psychological training of players and teams is a crucial factor

in elite soccer. At this level there is no room for mistakes and

consequently psychological training has got to be present.

The second second-order subtheme, illustrated a set of psychological

and team skills that coaches considered crucial for soccer players and team

performance, such as concentration, self-confidence and team cohesion. The

following quotations are representative of those perspectives:

Concentration is an important key to soccer players… when the players

are focused the things come out better… it seems that the players are

better physically, technically and all other things come out better. I think

concentration is the fundamental basis for the players to perform well.

One of the most important psychological skills for soccer players is self-

confidence… when the players are confident they can perform at their

best level

Another crucial skill is team cohesion… the group has to be more

important than parts

Also in the second second-order, some coaches mentioned a range of

psychological attributes that they considered important for soccer players (e.g.,

ability to sacrifice, responsibility as elite player). At this level it should be noted

that only one coach mentioned the importance of a specific psychological

technique, namely goal setting.

59

Regarding the ability to implement and conduct PST programs with

soccer players and teams, ten of the participants reported did not feel prepared

to conduct regular PST programs. On the other hand, three coaches reported

feeling prepared (due to their vast experience) to conduct this process. For

example one of the coaches stated:

I am not prepared to apply the specific techniques that you referred to in

the introduction. I lack scientific knowledge to do it but wouldn’t say that I

don’t feel able to prepare my players psychologically. I can’t utilize

specific techniques but my long experience allows me to use several

strategies in training and competition that improves my players

psychologically. For example, sometimes my speeches with my players

have psychological effects and consequently serve to prepare them

psychologically.

Finally, the participants listed several roadblocks to PST. In particular the

roadblock most identified by the participants was the lack of PST knowledge.

In my opinion the biggest problem that a soccer coach has in PST is the

lack of scientific knowledge in this area.

PST with soccer coaches

The third general dimension pointed out the coaches’ perspectives about

the PST with themselves. Eighteen raw data themes comprised this dimension

and four second-order subthemes were used to define it (Figure 3).

60

The first second-order subtheme highlighted the importance of the PST

with coaches. Nine of the participants recognized the important role of their own

PST. Additionally two coaches also mentioned that the coaches PST was

needed to stay at the top (n=2).

The second second-order theme, crucial psychological skills for soccer

coaches, illustrated the importance given by 11 participants to psychological

skills such as motivation, emotional control and leadership. In this second-order

subtheme, some participants also mentioned a range of other psychological



General Dimension

• Important (n=9)

• Needed to stay at top (n=2)


Importance of PST with

soccer coaches

PST with soccer

coaches

• Motivation (n=4)

• Emotional control (n=4)

• Leadership (n=3)

• Communication (n=2)

• Self-confidence (n=2)

Psychological skills (n=11)

Crucial psychological

skills for soccer coaches

• Self-talk (n=2) P. techniques (n=2)

• Honesty (n=1)

• Responsibility (n=1)

• Intelligence (n=1)

• Passion (n=1)

• Ability to deal with players (n=1)

Other psychological

attributes (n=5)

• Feel prepared due to their experience (n=3)

Feel prepared to conduct PST

(n=3)

Ability to conduct PST programs with

themselves

• Used some psychological techniques but not regularly (n=1)

• Did not feel prepared to use PST regularly (n=10)

Feel unprepared to conduct

PST (n= 10)

• Lack of PST knowledge (n= 9)

• Lack of time (n=4)

Roadblocks to PST

(n=10)

Roadblocks to PST with

themselves

Figure 3. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about PST on soccer coaches

61

attributes (n=5) and a specific psychological technique (n=2) that they consider

important for their own performance.

With respect to the third second-order subtheme, ability to implement

PST programs with themselves, the majority of the sample (n=10) reported not

feeling prepared for this.

The last second-order subtheme, roadblocks to the coaches PST,

illustrated two roadblocks identified by the participants: lack of PST knowledge

(n=9) and the lack of time (n=4).

In my opinion the biggest obstacle that a coach faces regarding his own

psychological preparation is the lack of knowledge as well as the lack of

time to implement the PST programs.

Sport psychologists service in soccer

The last general dimension is related to a group of issues regarding the

coach’s opinions about the role of the sport psychologist in soccer.Thirteen raw

data themes were included in this dimension that was grouped directly into four

second-order subthemes: importance of sport psychologists, receptiveness to

working with sport psychologists, previous experience with sport psychologists

and barriers to sport psychologist’s interventions (Figure 4).

62

Ten of the participants were unanimous in stating the important role of

sport psychologists in soccer. For instance, one participant said:

It is evident that the sport psychologist could be important in soccer.

Soccer involves many branches of science and these exist in conjunction

with several specialists that include the sport psychologist. I believe that

these experts can and should be in elite soccer.

Regarding the coaches receptiveness to work with sport psychologists in

soccer, 11 participants showed receptiveness to this type of collaboration.



General Dimension

• Equal importance to other sport science specialists (n=1)

• Important role in soccer (n=2)

• Can help the players and coaches (n=3)

Important role in soccer

(n=10)

Importance of sport

psychologists

Sport psychologist

(SP’s) in soccer

• No opinion (n= 3)

Without opinion (n=3)

• Full receptiveness (n=6)

• Receptiveness (n=5)

Receptive (n=11)

Receptiveness to working with

SP’s

• Doubts about the usefulness of the collaboration with SP’s (n=1)

Unreceptive (n=2)

• Currently working with a SP (n=1)

• Previous contact with a SP (n=1)

Work/contact with SP’s (n=2)

Previous experience with

SP’s

• Never contacted or worked with a SP (n=11)

Never worked/contact

with SP’s (n=11)

• Lack of sport specific knowledge (n=5)

• Mentality/culture in soccer (n=3)

• Financial barrier (n=2)

Barriers to SP’s intervention

(n=10)

Barriers to SP’s interventions

Figure 4. Soccer coaches’ perspectives on sport psychologists

63

If I feel that the collaboration with the sport psychologist is going to bring

benefits for the players, and if the administrators don’t object to hiring

these experts, I would be receptive to working with them.

In contrast one of the coaches expressed some doubts about the

usefulness of the collaboration with these experts in soccer. The following quote

illustrates this opinion:

I think an experienced coach is perfectly capable of managing their

players and teams psychologically. I could say to you that I am receptive

to working with a psychologist but I wouldn’t be honest with you. At the

moment, for lots of reasons, I can’t see myself working with an expert in

this area.

When the participants were asked about their previous experience with

sport psychologists, more than half of the sample stated that they have never

worked with these experts. On the other hand, one of the coaches mentioned

currently working with a sport psychologist. However this coach reported that

the sport psychologist had no direct contact with the players and team, as is

well illustrated in the following expression:

I worked with a sport psychologist for a couple of years, but he was never

hired by the club. The sport psychologist was a personal service and

consequently he had no direct contact with the team or with the players.

He was a consultant that helped me to coordinate the psychological

preparation of my players and teams as well as my own preparation.

Also in this context, the same coach expressed one idea that can be

linked with some of the barriers to a sport psychology intervention.

I know that this isn’t an ideal type of intervention but as you know

sometimes we can’t hire all of the assistant coaches that we want for the

club. We are limited to hiring one or two assistant coaches because the

club already has other internal assistant coaches.

64

With respect to the aforementioned (barriers to sport psychologist

intervention in soccer) the participants listed other possible reasons, such as

lack of sport specific knowledge (n=5), mentality / culture in soccer (n=3) and

lack of time (n=1) and finances (n=1).

Discussion

The current study was designed to examine the thoughts of Portuguese

soccer coaches regarding the PST process. Additionally, we intend to explore

the soccer coaches’ educational background in sport psychology and their

opinions about the role of sport psychologists in soccer.

With respect to the formal education in sport psychology, only four of the

coaches were exposed to sport psychology in their academic courses. On the

other hand, all of the coaches reported had formal contact with sport

psychology contents during their coaching training courses (UEFA licence,

promoted by the Portuguese Federation of soccer). Therefore it should be

expected that this group of coaches would be well educated in the field of sport

psychology. However, doubts can be raised regarding soccer coaches

psychological education in these courses. In fact, these soccer coaching

courses do not seem to give the necessary importance to the discipline of sport

psychology. For example, according to the regulation of the UEFA Pro licence

(UEFA, 2009) only 15 hours were used in the discipline of the behaviour of

science (that includes sport psychology contents). In contrast, 56 hours were

used in the discipline of training methodology and 50 hours for the disciplines of

technical/tactical and physical skills. In line with this, Fonseca (2000) stated that

soccer coaching courses in Portugal give less importance to psychological

factors since the amount of hours designated to sport psychology within these

courses, is significantly less than others modules.

Therefore it is not surprising that more than half of the sample considered

that their sport psychology knowledge came from personal and practical

experiences, especially coaching experience. In the same way, Gould et al.,

(1999) found that tennis coaches’ knowledge of sport psychology was more

influenced by the experience of working with players rather than by formal

65

courses. Gould et al., (1999) and Sullivan and Hodge (1991) stated that trial

and error learning becomes a common procedure among strategies for

psychological preparation. In this regard, Grobbelaar (2007) reported that

although the majority of netball coaches made use of trial and error methods,

they perceived these methods rather ineffective.

Given the above, it seems important that the Portuguese Federation of

Soccer (responsible for the coaching soccer courses) should pay more attention

for the good practice examples of other countries. For example, the Football

Association of England has recently introduced its ‘Psychology for Football’

strategy to develop better players and coaches in England. A range of courses

aimed at coaches, players and support staff has been developed to educate

these groups in the concepts of sport psychology (Pain & Harwood, 2004).

Similarly, Morris (1997) indicated that coaching organizations in several

countries (e.g., UK, USA and Australia) have established sport psychology

modules in their different levels of coaching education programmes.

The second research question sought to determine the importance

assigned by the coaches to the PST in soccer. All of the coaches revealed a

positive and favourable perspective about the importance of PST, which are in

agreement with the PST literature (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas,

2004; Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002; Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006,

2010). This is an encouraging finding and reflects the high status that PST in

soccer has among these elite national coaches.

When evaluating the crucial psychological skills for soccer players and

teams, one could argue that concentration, self-confidence and team cohesion

were the skills most frequently mentioned by the coaches. These findings are

not surprising, because the importance of these three psychological skills is

often addressed in the psychological skill literature as well as in the soccer

media. Several studies show the crucial role that self-confidence and

concentration play in athlete’s performance (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002;

Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002; Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach 2001;

Kitsantas & Zimmerman, 2002). Relative to group cohesion, investigators

showed this skill as being effective for improving relationship patterns among all

66

elements of the group, pursuing the established goals that lead to team success

(Carron, Bray, & Eys, 2002; Heuzé, Bosselut, & Thomas, 2007; Heuzé,

Raimbault, & Fontayne, 2006). It is also encouraging that the three

psychological skills most mentioned by our coaches are often discussed in the

psychological skills literature. However, a review in soccer PST literature shows

that few or no studies investigated the concrete strategies that coaches used to

enhance the concentration, self-confidence and cohesion of their players and

teams. Given the above, sport psychology researches should consider

exploring these issues.

With respect to the psychological skills considered most relevant for the

soccer coaches, the results of our analysis revealed that motivation and

emotional self-control were the skills most frequently mentioned by the sample.

The professional instability and the high psychological pressure that the soccer

coach is constantly subjected to, may explain this finding.

For Vealey (2007), it seems important to identify key psychological skills

that are related to performance success and personal well-being to guide the

development of psychological skills interventions. In this sense the set of

psychological skills identified in the present study should serve as a relevant

indicator for the development of more specific and effective psychological

interventions in soccer. However, for this support to be most effective and

specific as possible, future research should identify the key psychological skills

according to the players and coaches characteristics (e.g., gender, age), as well

as the players position in the field (e.g., goalkeepers, defenders, midfielders and

attackers).

Although participants were aware of the importance of PST on soccer

players and coaches performance and elected a set of crucial psychological

skills (that are consistent with the sport psychological literature), they have

given less relevance to the psychological techniques.

According to the above it is not surprising that the majority of the coaches

admitted to feeling unprepared to conduct and apply the PST process. This

finding is in agreement with the PST literature that showed that coaches have

difficulties in understanding deep psychological techniques (Barrero, 1994).

67

In this context it should be noted that even the coaches who considered

themselves to be relatively well prepared to conduct psychological training,

mentioned that their intervention was based only on their experience as coach

and previously as players. Thus, it seems evident that these coaches do not

have the correct understanding about the PST process. According to Fonseca

(2004) one thing is the coach had general knowledge about sport psychology

that allowed them to perform better and positively influence their players and

teams psychologically. Another thing is the coach was prepared to use the

different psychological techniques and help their players to develop strategies in

this sense.

Results of the current study also revealed information about the

roadblocks to the development of PST in soccer. In particular, the biggest

roadblocks identified by this sample of coaches included the lack of PST

knowledge. Malete and Feltz (2000) stated that a lack of knowledge on PST

was a barrier to coaching effectiveness. Similarly, Vealey (1988) indicated that

coaches usually neglected the PST because they lacked the knowledge to train

these skills. To help overcome these obstacles, coaches may benefit from

collaboration with sport psychologists.

Therefore, the agreement of the majority of the sample about the

importance of sport psychologists and the receptiveness to work with these

experts was not surprising. Similarly, Sullivan and Hodge (1991) found that 97%

of the coaches’ surveyed in their study indicated interest in working with a sport

psychologist. In this context, Anderson (2009) described a twofold perspective

of collaboration between coach and sport psychologists. One form of coach

consultation is focused on the coaching practices in order to support the

psychological preparation of his/her athletes. Another situation occurs when

coaches seek consultation not for their athletes but for their own personal and

professional needs (e.g., anxiety). This study did not attempt to evaluate the

type of soccer coach/sport psychologists’ collaboration. Future research could

explore this topic.

According to the previous finding, we would expect a high level of

collaboration between elite Portuguese soccer head coaches and sport

68

psychologists. However, when the coaches were asked about their previous

experience with sport psychologists, only one coach reported that he had the

support of a sport psychologist. In this respect, Fonseca (2004) referred that the

existence of a sport psychologist in professional, Portuguese soccer teams is

an exception not the rule.

Therefore we are faced with a paradox which is important to understand.

If the soccer coaches are receptive to working with sport psychologists, why are

they not hired by the clubs?

The coaches of the sample mentioned a list of barriers that limited the

sport psychologist intervention in soccer. A lack of sport-specific knowledge on

the part of the sport psychologist was cited as the most significant barrier.

Gould, Murphy, Tammen and May (1991), found that Olympic coaches

suggested that sport psychologists should increase their sport-specific

knowledge and, consequently, the specific psychological skills strategies. For

this purpose, one of the most recognized soccer coaches in the world, Fábio

Capello (cit. in Fonseca, 2004), stated that “is crucial that a sport psychologist

working in elite soccer completely understands soccer, is involved in this sport,

and is prepared to understand the problems related to this type of activity”.

Other barriers that are well described in literature such as lack of time

and lack of finances (Pain & Harwood, 2004), also emerged in the present

study. However, in our opinion these perspectives are quite questionable. In

fact, with the huge budgets that currently exist in professional soccer the

inclusion of a sport psychologist will not endanger the budget of the club.

Therefore, the question of background seems to be connected with the

idea that some of the coaches believe that sport psychologists, have a small

contribution to the performance of soccer players and coaches. At this level, it

should be noted that three of the participants stated that the general cultural

mentality in Portuguese soccer was a barrier to sport psychologists. For Pain

and Harwood (2004), despite the continued success of sport psychology across

the globe, negative connotations of the field still exist, particularly within sports

such as soccer, that have tended to resist change.

69

An educational program on the psychological concepts, targeting

coaches and directors may help to remove negative connotations of sport

psychologists and consequently change the culture of soccer. At this level,

soccer coaching courses promoted by the Portuguese Football Federation

could play an important role because for the majority of the participants these

courses are the only source of formal education in sport psychology. It should

be noted, however, that it is fundamental to reformulate these courses,

increasing the number of hours devoted to sport psychology.

If the Portuguese Federation of Soccer delivers the appropriate

Psychology education to the soccer coaches and administrators and if sport

psychologists can enhance their soccer knowledge, the barriers could be

overcome and the opportunities for the collaboration between coaches and

sport psychologists will increase.

Conclusion

The findings of our study may be interpreted as being supportive of the

importance of the PST process in professional soccer. However, although the

participants acknowledge the importance of PST and the role of sport

psychologists, they did not feel able to design and apply PST programs with

players, as well as, with themselves. Therefore the need to educate soccer

coaches providing more applicable, concrete and practical PST information is

necessary.

While the present study provides important implications relative to PST

process in the context of Portuguese professional soccer, it should be noted

that the findings are related to the unique characteristic of our sample and

transferability of the results is limited. Therefore, methodological limitations

must be considered when making interpretations about the type of sport (i.e.,

only one sport-soccer) and gender (i.e., only one gender – male) of the sample.

However, since the purpose of the current study was not to make comparisons

between groups, these issues did not affect the trustworthiness of the research.

On the other hand the sport represented (soccer – one of the most important

sports worldwide) and the high quality of the sample (i.e. coaches of elite

70

Portuguese Teams) can be considered a strength of this research. Finally it

should be noted that the current study reflected the thoughts and not

necessarily the actual behavior of the coaches. Therefore, further research is

needed to assess the actual PST behavior of coaches.

In summary, the current study can serve as a guide to future PST soccer

research and, from a practical perspective, may serve to highlight several

recommendations for making PST more effective in the context of Portuguese

soccer.

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Paper III

How do soccer coaches prepare their players and teams

psychologically? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams 3

____________________

3 Accepted for publication at the Journal of Physical Education and Sport: vol.13, nº3,

September 2013

73

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to examine the psychological preparation

strategies often used by soccer coaches with their players and teams, as well

as to ascertain where and why they employed these strategies. Thirteen elite

coaches from Portuguese premier soccer league clubs were interviewed.

Globally, results showed that the participants used a considerable set of

strategies and activities with psychological effects in training, competition, and

outside these environments. However they exhibited a limited use of

psychological techniques, specifically in the practice setting. Overall, the

findings seem to suggest that the participants mostly based their psychological

intervention on their vast experience as coach, as well as during their soccer

playing careers. Practical implications and future directions to enhance the

psychological preparation of soccer players and teams are discussed.

Key-words: psychological preparation, psychological techniques, Portuguese

elite soccer teams, qualitative study, coaches’ perspectives

.

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Introduction

Nowadays, the importance of psychological preparation in the

development of athletic performance is well known. According to Gould and

Maynard (2009), psychological preparation can be viewed in several ways. For

these authors, it can be broadly defined as anything athletes do to prepare

themselves for sport involvement, or in a more specific manner in terms of

techniques used by athletes to ready themselves for specific athletic tasks (e.g.,

visualization to aid in the execution of a balance beam routine). In the current

study, psychological preparation is defined as ‘‘those cognitive, emotional, and

behavioural strategies athletes and teams use to arrive at an ideal performance

state or condition that is related to optimal psychological states and peak

performance either for competition or practice’’ (Gould, Flett, & Bean, 2009, p.

53). Based on the work of Vealey (1988), a distinction is also made between

psychological skills or states the athlete is trying to achieve (e.g., stress

management, concentration, self-confidence and motivation) and the methods

or cognitive or behavioural strategies the athletes use to arrive at these states

or skills (e.g., goal-setting, imagery, relaxation and self-talk).

Research has shown that athletes of several sports can benefit from the

use of psychological techniques to improve sport performance (Frey, Laguna, &

Ravizza, 2003; Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2003). Goal-

setting, relaxation, imagery and self-talk are the four psychological techniques

more often referred to in the sport psychology literature. However, in order for

athletes’ to successfully apply these and other psychological techniques they

need to learn the basic principles of each technique and be taught the most

effective way to use them. Bertollo, Saltarelli, and Robazza (2009) stated, that

some athletes may be helped to learn, refine, and practice psychological

techniques aimed at gaining personal control of debilitative states and

improving psychophysical conditions that facilitate performance. Psychological

skills can be developed by elite level performers in formal settings when, for

example, they decide to undertake sport psychology consultancy, or in informal

ways through the influence of significant persons, such as coaches, (Durand-

Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002).

75

The coach is the manager of the team and therefore has great influence

in the psychological development of their athletes and teams. According to

Gould and Maynard (2009), they facilitate this development in several ways,

including emphasizing certain things such as hard work, discipline, having fun,

having characteristics that facilitated athlete trust, providing encouragement and

support, directly teaching or fostering psychological skills, and by understanding

the athletes. Furthermore, coaches have the power to allow or not allow the

interference of external collaborators (e.g., sport psychologists) in the work with

their team and athletes (Morris, 1997).

Psychological preparation and sport psychology were identified as

coaching actions that had helped the athletes and teams to perform to their

maximum potential (Gould & Maynard, 2009). Accordingly, coaching literature

emphasizes the importance of integrating psychology preparation into the

coaching process (Côté, Bruner, Erickson, Strachan, & Fraser-Thomas, 2010;

Côté & Gilbert, 2009; Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995; Fraser-Thomas & Côté,

2009; Gould, Chung, Smith, & White, 2006). Coaches must believe in the value

of psychological training, understand their principles and apply them on a

regular basis in the coaching plan. Although research on psychological

preparation strategies used by coaches, has not been studied as extensively as

other areas in sport psychology, it has not been completely ignored (Bloom,

Stevens, & Wickwire, 2003; Côté, & Sedgwick, 2003; Gould, Damarjian, &

Medbery, 1999; Sedgwick, Côté, & Dowd, 1997). For example, Gould and

colleagues (1999) found that concentration drills, simulating pressure, imagery,

goal-setting, enhanced motivation, thought stopping, initiating team activities,

discussion and teaching about mistakes, breathing, and relaxation techniques

were some of the specific exercises/strategies used by elite junior tennis

coaches with their players. Although the aforementioned investigations offer

valuable insight into the psychological skills and techniques used by coaches

with athletes, a more detailed understanding of this area of research is

necessary, namely regarding where, when and for what purposes coaches use

them.

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At this level, it should be noted that the implementation of psychological

preparation strategies (and its’ consequent effectiveness), needs to consider

the requirements of each athlete as well as the specific sport demands.

Different athletes and different sports required different things from their

coaches at different points in their careers. This emphasized the importance of

coaches reading athletes’ psychological needs and using different approaches

at different times and in different situations (Gould & Maynard, 2009). In line

with this, Taylor (1995) developed a conceptual model that describes several

critical aspects in the development of competitive psychological preparation

strategies. Specifically, the model emphasizes the importance of understanding

the individual needs of athletes, the particular demands of sports, and

integrating this information into an effective intervention package. Integration of

this information enables consultants to develop customized competitive

psychological preparation strategies that will optimally prepare each individual

athlete for the particular sport settings in which they compete.

Despite elite soccer coaches being the center of public interest and

media attention worldwide, little is known about their actions and attitudes

regarding the psychological preparation of their players and teams. For Potrac,

Jones, and Cushion (2007) there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding

the top-level soccer coaches and the means and methods that they utilize in

their respective quests to produce successful soccer teams.

Although international literature supported the positive influence of

psychological techniques on soccer players’ performance (e.g., Johnson,

Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Thelwell, Greenlees & Weston, 2006, 2010),

there are a paucity of studies concerning the specific strategies employed by

soccer coaches to prepare their players and teams psychologically. This gap in

literature is even more critical on a national level. Indeed, to our knowledge, no

previous research has focused on this specific research topic. Knowing the

psychological preparation strategies used by coaches with their players and

teams can bring important insights about the relevance of psychological

intervention in Portuguese soccer.

77

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the repertoire of

psychological preparation strategies used by Portuguese elite soccer coaches

with their players and teams. Additionally, we intended to examine where and

for what purpose they use these strategies.

Due to the in-depth nature of the question being asked (i.e., what, where,

and why), a qualitative approach was deemed appropriate. Through the use of

qualitative methodology, we believed our findings could bring a new and in-

depth vision to this phenomenon and be useful to provide tools for reflection

about psychological intervention in the context of Portuguese soccer.

Method

Participants

Thirteen male professional soccer head coaches composed the sample

of this study. Their ages ranged between 43 and 63 and their experience as

soccer coaches ranged from 10 to 29 years. The sample was selected based

on the three following criteria: i) have worked, or currently work with “elite-level”

athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005), ii) be employed by their

respective governing bodies of sport (national squads) or by professional clubs

(Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008b) and iii) had a minimum of

ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom, Durand-Bush, & Salmela,

1997; Sedgwick et al., 1997).

All of the participants held coach positions in Portuguese soccer premier

League clubs (one of the top ten European Soccer Leagues). They also had the

highest level of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) coaching

qualification: UEFA Pro License. For most participants (n=9) these courses

were the only source of sport psychology education. On the other hand, four of

the coaches had academic courses which contained sport psychology

modules.

Interview guide

An interview guide was developed in accordance with the specific

purposes of the current study. Three pilot interviews were conducted with three

78

professional soccer assistant coaches. Minor amendments to the questions

were made to the appropriateness of the probe and elaboration questions. As a

result, the final interview guide was comprised of three sections. The first

section included demographic information and other introductory comments.

The second section composed the main body of the interview and focused on

the psychological preparation strategies. Here the coaches were asked to

identify and explain the psychological preparation strategies that they employed

in training, competition and outside these two locations. In this section the

coaches were also asked about the intended outcomes with the application of

each mentioned strategy. The third and final section of the interview provided

the opportunity for any final comments and summary questions from both the

interviewer and interviewee.

The interview guide (available from the first author) was used to

standardize the interviews and to minimize bias.

Procedures

All of the participants took part in a semi-structured interview lasting

between 60 to 90 minutes. Each interview was conducted face to face by the

first author who had previous experience as an assistant soccer coach in the

Portuguese premier league and was therefore familiar with the experiences and

terminology used by the participants. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) this

was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data collection. The data

were compiled in an environment comfortable for the participant. Nine of the 13

interviews took place in the coaches’ offices before or after a training session.

Of the remaining interviews, three were conducted in the coach’s home, and

one in a hotel room.

Data analysis

Interviews were analyzed in a process of inductive-deductive content

analysis (Patton, 2002), which consisted of several steps. First, interviews were

transcribed, read and reread by the first author in order to become completely

familiar with the content. Second, raw data were identified and coded. Different

79

levels of coding were developed to refine categories until saturation of data was

reached. First-order subthemes, second-order subthemes and general

dimensions were established according to a progressive level of higher

abstraction. Next, in order to establish trustworthiness, all findings were

presented and discussed with another author to serve as the “devil advocate”

(Marshall & Rossman, 1995). After discussion, different suggestions were

presented, changes were made as appropriate and a final consensus was

reached. Finally, the first author checked all the findings again in depth to

provide a validity check.

Results

The inductive-deductive analysis highlighted two general dimensions

emerging from 65 raw data themes mentioned by the elite coaches. The

dimensions were abstracted from five second-order subthemes and these from

14 first-order subthemes. The general dimensions are represented in figures 1-

2. Frequency analysis and representative quotations from the transcripts are

interspersed amid the results to clarify the emergent themes

Activities, exercises, and strategies used by the coaches with their

players and teams

The first dimension was related with a group of activities, exercises and

strategies designed and applied by the coaches to have psychological effects in

their players and teams. Forty-two raw data themes comprised this dimension

and three second order themes were used to define it (Figure 1).

Participants revealed using several exercises and strategies with

psychological effects in a training setting. Of these, coaches’ speech with the

team (n=13) and players (n=12) were clearly the strategies most often

mentioned by the participants. For example one coach said:

For me, the speech with the players during the week (in training

sessions) is the best form to prepare the players for the competition. My

vast experience lets me identify the psychological state of my team and

80

my players. Based on this information I talk individually with my players in

order to regulate their psychological state.

All of the participants considered the coaches’ speech during the training

sessions, as a great way to enhance the psychological skills of their players and

teams. For example, some coaches revealed using this specific strategy in

training to increase the confidence and the motivation of their players.

In the first session training after a game I always speak to my players,

not just about the game but also in order to prepare then psychologically

for the next game…for example, when we’ve lost two or three games

consecutively, I have a positive speech that increases the players

confidence and motivation…I tell them they won’t forget how to play one

day to another…we should say that sometimes not training in the field is

the best training. If the players are not prepared psychologically, they

won’t be able to train hard in the field.

Other exercises and strategies employed in training from which coaches

derive psychological effects included, tactical exercises, feedback, competitive

games/exercises, press conference (after the last training before the game), fun

games, open exercises, hard physical work, evidence of cheerfulness at training

sessions, respect for the players, training at different locations, free period at

the end of the session and open leadership.

These set of exercises and strategies were applied in training by the

majority of the coaches, in order to enhance several psychological skills (e.g.,

increase confidence and motivation, improve focus and promoting team

cohesion) of their players and teams.

For example, one coach reported creating scenarios of game

environments to improve the focus of their players, as illustrated in the following

quote:

And when we take the players to the beach, we are also training their

concentration. Usually, in the summer the beach is full of people, and as

people have the possibility of being close to our team, they take pictures,

81

make noise, call the players, etc…; and this is a good way of improve

athletes focus . In a scenario where several factors disturb their attention,

they must have the ability to focus on the task and to ignore all of these

outside factors.

The thirteen participants of this study also point out the use of a

considerable set of strategies in competition to influence their players and

teams psychologically. As with the training environment, the coaches’ speech

with the team (n=13) and with the players (n=19) were again the strategies most

mentioned by the coaches. The next comment shows the former strategy in

competition setting: “A frequent psychological preparation strategy that I use in

competition is the pep talk, a speech with the team…for me this is the best

strategy to prepare the team for the game”.

Also in this location (competition), the participants elicited a diversity of

other strategies used to have psychological effects in their players and teams

(e.g., feedbacks during the game, slogans in the hall, flash interview,

motivational videos/slides, and projection of a calm image). When the coaches

talked about the desired outcomes in competition, they mentioned the used of

the previous strategies to enhance several psychological skills of their players /

teams (e.g., reduce anxiety, to facilitate appropriate focus, and to increase

confidence and motivation levels). For example, one of the coaches revealed

using the speech with the team in competition to optimize their confidence

levels, as illustrated in the following quote:

Before the game, in the pep-talk I promote a speech that affects the team

confidence. Sometimes, when I feel the team’s confidence levels are low,

I try to convey a message that increases those levels; other times, when I

feel the team has too much confidence, I do the opposite…so, depending

on how I think the team are feeling, I promote a speech that optimizes

the team’s confidence levels.

Similarly, three coaches referred the use of the flash interview to

increase the team confidence. Other participants mentioned that they

82

sometimes used antagonistic comments of opponent published in the media

(n=1) and put slogans on the walls of dressing room (n=1) with the aim of

increasing motivational levels of their players, specifically before the beginning

of game. These perspectives are well demonstrated in the next comments: “I

begin the psychological preparation for the next game in the flash interview…

For example, when things went wrong in the game, I give a speech aimed at

increasing the confidence levels for the next game”; “Putting some motivational

slogans on dressing room walls before the game is a strategy that I use to

increase the motivational levels of my players…I usually put these slogans up

before the biggest games”; “Sometimes, before the game, we quote some

antagonistic comments of the opponent published in the media, in order to

provoke the athletes and thereby promote an extra motivation for the action”.

Finally, five coaches stressed the use of some activities and strategies

outside both training and competition (e.g., team dinners, game model selected

and pre-season training camps) with the sole purpose of enhancing team

cohesion, as showed in the following quotations: “We organize many group

dinners as a way to promote cohesion; it is a way to bring a group closer

together”; “The election of the zone as a defensive method is in itself a way to

promote team building ... the zone requires solidarity and mutual assistance in

the task, and, therefore, requires good teamwork”.

83



General Dimension

• Coaches’ speech with team (n=13)

• Coaches’ speech with the player (n=12)

• Tactical exercises (n=6)

• Feedbacks (n=5)

• Competitive games/exercises (n=5)

• Press conference (after the last training before the game) (n=4)

• Fun games (n=3)

• Open exercises (n=2)

• Hard physical work (n=2)

• Evidence of cheerfulness at sessions (n=2)

• Respect all the players (n=1)

• Training at different locations (n=1)

•Free period at the end of session (n=1)

• Open leadership (players involved on the decisions) (n=1)

Exercises and

strategies used (n=13)

Application in

practice (n=13)

Application in

competition (n=13)

Outside practice and competition

(n=6)

Activities, exercises

and strategies

used by the

coaches and from which they derive

psychological effects

• Increase players motivation (n=13)

• Increase players confidence (n=10)

• Improve players focus (n=9)

• Team cohesion (n=4)

• Cope with difficulties (n=2)

• Developed players dec. making (n=2)

•Optimize team confidence (n=1)

• Develop players ability to sacrifice (n=1)

Desired outcomes

(n=13)

• Coaches’ speech with team (n=13)

• Coaches’ speech with the player (n=10)

• Feedbacks during the game (n=4)

• Flash interview (n=3)

• Motivational Videos /slides (power point) after the game (n=4)

• Antagonistic comments of opponent published in media (n=1)

• Showing video highlights of individual and teams good performance (n=1)

• Videos showing the weaknesses of the opponent (n=1)

• Slogans in the hall (n=1)

Activities and

strategies used (n=13)

• Increase players motivation(n=13)

• Increase team confidence (n=6)

• Reduce players anxiety (n=4)

• Improve players self-confidence (n=3)

• Facilitate appropriate focus (n=3)

• Promote team cohesion (n=3)

•Optimize team confidence (n=1)

Desired outcomes

(n=13)

• Team dinners (n=6)

• Game Model selected (n=2)

• Pre-season training camps (n=1)

Activities and stra. used (n=6)

• Enhance team cohesion (n=6) Desired out.(n=6)

Figure 1. Activities, exercises and strategies used by coaches with their players/ teams

Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them

84

Psychological techniques used by the coaches with their players and

teams

The second dimension, psychological techniques, shows the coaches’

perspectives on the application of psychological techniques with their players,

and included twenty-three raw data themes that emerged into two second-order

subthemes (Figure 2).

Only six of the participants mentioned the application of psychological

techniques in their coaching routines, and of these only two cited their use in

both training and competition. Thus, a considerable lack of use of psychological

techniques was exhibited by the majority of these coaches.

Goal setting (n=2) and imagery (n=1) were the only two psychological

techniques mentioned for the practice setting. When the two coaches were

asked about their use of goal setting in a practice setting, they mentioned

setting goals related with technical and tactical aspects. Additionally they

reported employing this specific technique to facilitate appropriate focus, as well

as to increase players’ motivational levels. For example, one of the coaches

stated that in all of the training sessions the tactical goals of each part of the

session were clearly established in order to facilitate appropriate focus of their

players, as in the next comment: “Before each exercise I inform my players

about the tactical goals of the exercise. I do this to stimulate their focus during

the training sessions”.

With respect to the use of imagery, the same coach reported that during

the training session he constantly asked the players about their tactical

decisions:

When I’ve seen a player make a bad decision, or be in a wrong position, I

immediately stop the training and demand that everyone stays in place.

Next I ask the players to visualize the situation and ask him what he did

wrong and what he should do…if the situation stops, the players can

analyze the different options and select the best…if the player is

conscious of this he will be more effective in identical future situations.

85

Finally, in the competition setting, participants mentioned the use of goal-

setting (n=6), imagery (n=2), self-talk (n=1) and thought stopping (n=1) in their

coaching routines.

In relation to the use of goal-setting, coaches employed team and

individual outcome goals to enhance the motivation of their players and teams.

The following expression is quite representative of that:

I set goals with the players and the team. I did it because I think this of a

way of motivating them. How does that happen? For example, I would

propose that a player scored 5 goals in three games or that the team

scored more than 35 goals until the end of the first lap.

From the three coaches that reported the use of imagery, two of them

stated that they encouraged the players to focus on success by recalling past

games where the player/team was successful. Specifically, these two coaches

applied this specific strategy to increase players’ motivation and confidence

levels. With regard to the last purpose, a coach said: “Sometimes during the

pep-talks before the game, I tell my players to remember previous situations

that our team has had success…I do this with the intention of boosting their

confidence levels for the game”.

Lastly, two different coaches stated using the dialogue with the players in

order to stimulate their positive self-talk as well as thought stopping technique.

These same coaches mentioned using these two psychological techniques to

improve the player’s self-confidence and concentration levels.

86

Discussion

The main purpose of the present study was to identify the strategies

often used by Portuguese elite soccer coaches to prepare their players and

teams psychologically. Additionally we intended to gain an insight to where and

why they used them.

Results from this study showed that elite Portuguese soccer coaches

employed a considerable number of strategies and activities in training,

competition and outside both environments to influence their players and teams



General Dimension

• Tactical goals (n=2)

• Technical goals (n=1)

• Performance goals (n=1)

Goal-setting

(n=2)

Application in

practice (n=2)

Application

in competition

(n=6)

Psychological techniques

used by the

coaches (n=6)

• Questioning players about tactical decisions (n=1)

Imagery (n=1)

• Increase players motivational levels (n=2)

• Facilitate appropriate focus (n=1)

• Develop players decision making (n=1)

• Improve technical and tactical (n=1) performance (n=1)

Desired

Outcomes (n=2)

• Team Goals (n=5)

• Individual Goals (n=3)

• Long goals (n=2)

• Short goals (n=2)

• Outcome goals (n=4)

Goal Setting

(n=6)

• Recall of successful performances of players (n=2)

• Recall of successful performances of teams (n=1)

• Stimulate the players to image positive outcomes (n=1)

Imagery

(n=3)

• Encourage players to use positive self-talk (n=1)

Self-talk (n=1)

• Encourage players to use thought stopping (n=1)

Thought stopping (n=1)

• Increase players motivation (n=6)

• Increase players self-confidence (n=4)

• Enhance players focus (n=3)

• Enhance team motivation (n=2)

• Increase team confidence (n=2)

Desired

Outcomes (n=6)

Figure 2. Psychological techniques employed by coaches with their players and teams

87

psychologically. In effect, when analyzing the results, one could argue that the

coaches’ speech with the team and the player, were the strategies employed

most frequently by the soccer coaches in both practice and competition setting.

This data are not surprising, in view of the fact that both strategies are usually

used by soccer coaches (as is often illustrated in the three national sport

newspapers), and may be applied even without a profound knowledge of the

field of sport psychology. The results also revealed that most of the activities,

exercises, and strategies with psychological effects employed by the

participants were consistent with several studies on coaching (e.g., Bloom et al.,

2003; Côté & Sedgwick, 2003; Sedgwick, et al., 1997). For example, despite the

obvious differences in the key aims of the current study, compared with Bloom

et al. (2003) investigation, some strategies, such as training camps and team

dinners, emerged in both studies. Similarly, strategies such as giving positive

and corrective feedbacks, creating a motivational environment, and projecting a

calm image coincide with Sedgwick et al. (1997), and Côté and Sedgwick

(2003) studies. The data of the aforementioned studies converges with the

strategies identified by the coaches in the present study. However it is important

to note that these strategies and activities form which derive psychological

effects are not psychological techniques (there is a substantial difference

between both).

Surprisingly, participants also mentioned some strategies (to influence

their players and teams psychologically) usually absent in the coaching

literature, such as the use of press conferences and flash interviews to convey

specific messages to the players. These strategies may be intimately related to

the soccer context in which this investigation was conducted. In fact, the media

attention that this sport has may lead the coaches to use these strategies as a

way to influence the psychological performance of their players and teams.

These strategies probably would not have the same impact in sports with less

media attention.

The activities, exercises, and strategies (from which derive psychological

effects) mentioned previously may have been learned through ‘trial and error’

88

and/ or passed from generation to generation, thereby allowing the coaches to

gain sufficient knowledge so as to master and maximize their use.

In general, these results appear to be evidence that elite Portuguese

coaches give considerable attention to the psychological preparation of their

players and teams. However, this does not mean that they conduct this process

in the best or more effective way.

In fact, when we analyze in detail the coaches’ intervention at this level, it

was evident that it is mostly based in the application of a set of exercises,

activities and strategies with psychological effects over their players. Although

we do not doubt the quality and importance of this coaches’ intervention, it

should be noted that it is not the same as a systematic PST intervention. For

example, despite recognizing the importance that the coaches’ speech with

players assumes in their relationship, it appears to consensual that this type of

intervention is not enough to answer all of the players’ psychological demands.

It is not enough for the coach say to the players that «it is necessary to

concentrate for the full 90 minutes»; «that they have to have confidence to be

able to win»; or that «they have to have a strong team spirit to overcome all of

the difficulties».

Although PST was recognized as an invaluable training tool by coaches

of various contexts (Sullivan & Hodge, 1991), it is often excluded from coaching

practices (Barreiros, Silva, Freitas, Duarte, & Fonseca, 2011; Gould et al., 1999;

Grobbelaar, 2007). In this context, it should be noted that only six of the

participants of the current study mentioned employing psychological techniques

with their players and teams. Of these coaches, two used psychological

techniques in both training and competition, while the other four only employed

it in the competition setting. Coaches must be aware of the relationship

between psychological techniques in practice and success in competition in

order to positively influence their athletes to give equal importance to both

competition and practice settings for psychological training (Frey et al., 2003).

Overall, even these six coaches revealed through their comments, that they did

not utilize all of the functions and principles of the psychological techniques

cited, namely goal setting, imagery and self-talk (see Hardy, Gammage, & Hall,

89

2001; Munroe-Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000; Munroe-Chandler,

Hall, & Weinberg, 2004).

Therefore the findings of the current study seem to suggest that the

participants do not contemplate a regular and systematic use of psychological

techniques in their coaching process. This is in agreement with several

researchers (Almeida, 2004; Barreiros et al., 2011; Fonseca, 2004) that pointed

out the limited use of systematic PST in professional Portuguese soccer.

A range of possible explanations for the findings of the present study can

be suggested. The first relates to the lack of sport psychologists working in

Portuguese premier league soccer clubs (Barreiros et al., 2011; Fonseca,

2004). The existence of these experts in Portuguese professional soccer teams

is the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004).

A further possible explanation could relate to the lack of PST knowledge

by the participants. According to several studies (e.g., Malete & Feltz, 2000;

Vealey, 1988) the lack of PST coaches’ knowledge is one of the biggest

reasons that PST is neglected. This study did not attempt to examine the

reasons why the majority of the soccer coaches did not contemplate a regular

and systematic use of psychological techniques into their coaching process.

However, future research could and should explore this issue.

In recent years the applied sport psychology literature has seen an

increase in the number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence

of PST on performance of athletes of several sports (e.g., Blakeslee & Goff,

2007; Cohen, Tenenbaum, & English, 2006; Mamassis & Doganis, 2004;

Sheard & Golby, 2006; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001; Thelwell & Maynard, 2003),

and in particular on performance of soccer players (Thelwell, et al., 2006, 2010).

Hence, it could be advantageous for the participants to enhance their PST

knowledge and collaborate with sport psychologists in order to boost the

psychological preparation of their players and teams. For Weinberg and Gould

(2011), a PST programme should be planned, implemented, and supervised by

a qualified sport psychologist consultant. On the other hand, some of the sport

psychologists’ work is not in the reach of the soccer coach, because of the time

it takes, and because of the different relationship between the coach/players,

90

and sport psychologists/players. For example, soccer players may be more

open in discussing their difficulties concerning psychological aspects with the

sport psychologist, because he does not sit in judgment regarding who stays on

the team and who gets to play. Thus, the collaboration between Portuguese

soccer coaches and sport psychologists seems to be extremely beneficial to

improve the psychological preparation of soccer players and teams. For

Thomas (2001), the psychological interventions are usually more effective when

the psychologist and coach work together.

The soccer coaches have a great influence on their players and

consequently they should be fully involved in the PST process (oriented by the

sport psychologist).They should always point out the importance of PST in both

training and competition settings. The coaches spend a great amount of time

with their players and have the opportunity to remind them to use psychological

techniques (Frey et al., 2003). For example, the coaches should highlight that

the warm-up period is an optimum moment, not just for players to prepare

physically, but also psychologically in training and competition, utilizing specific

psychological techniques such as imagery, self- talk and others.

Therefore, the ideal situation seems to be, that the soccer coach works

closely with these experts, but also has a general understanding of PST

principles. The soccer coaching courses promoted by the Portuguese soccer

Federation are the only source of formal psychological education for the

majority of the soccer coaches in Portugal consequently these courses should

deliver the appropriate psychological education to the coaches. However,

doubts can be raised regarding soccer coaches psychological education in

these courses. In fact these courses seem to give little importance to the sport

psychology factors, which can be proved by the content and reduced number of

hours, attributed to the sport psychology module. Consequently, a suggestion

would be to enhance the quantity and the quality of the sport psychology

education in these courses in order to better educate coaches in the PST

concepts and, importantly to stimulate their collaboration with sport

psychologists.

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Conclusion

The present study has revealed that the coaches from the Portuguese

premier league clubs employed a considerable set of strategies, activities and

exercises in training, competition, and outside both locations, to prepare their

players and teams psychologically. However, when we analyzed the use of

psychological techniques in their coaching routines, our findings revealed that

their use was limited, specifically in the practice setting.

We do not intend to undervalue the psychological intervention of our

coaches. However, it is important to highlight that their intervention was mostly

based on their vast experience (as coaches as well as during their playing

careers), which is not the same as a systematic PST intervention. We believe

that if the Portuguese soccer coaches enhance their PST knowledge and if they

work more closely with the sport psychologists, the psychological preparation of

the soccer players and teams could be improved.

The physical, technical, and tactical training of the elite Portuguese

soccer players and teams is actually very similar and consequently the

psychological preparation could make an important contribution to achievement

success. In this sense, the present study raises a number of significant issues

for soccer coaches that could enhance the psychological preparation of their

players and teams.

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Paper IV

Elite soccer coaches use of psychological techniques 4

____________________

4 Freitas, S., Dias, C., & Fonseca A. (2013).Elite soccer coaches use of psychological

techniques. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 5(3), 56-70. doi:

10.5539/ijps.v5n3p56

95

Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to investigate soccer coaches’ use of

psychological techniques for their own performance. In depth semi-structured

interviews were conducted with 13 elite coaches, from Portuguese premier

league clubs, to examine and describe their use of imagery, goal-setting, self-

talk and relaxation. Participants mentioned employing psychological techniques

more in conjunction with competition than training. Self-talk and imagery tended

to be cited more frequently than goal setting and relaxation. Furthermore,

results of this study provided information about the content and functions of

each psychological technique. Implications of the results are discussed and

future research and practical recommendations are made.

Key-words: qualitative study, coaches’ perceptions, self-talk, imagery, goal

setting, relaxation

.

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Introduction

It is widely accepted that coaches recognize the importance of

psychological preparation of their athletes and teams (Gould, Flett, & Bean,

2009; Leffingwell, Durand-Bush, Wurzberger, & Cada, 2005; Martin, 2005).

Nevertheless, sometimes they forget to prepare themselves (Bloom, Durand-

Bush, & Salmela, 1997). According to Bloom et al., in the earlier stages of

coaches’ careers, the primary concern is preparing athletes for competition.

However, as they gain experience they recognize the importance of spending

as much time, if not more, preparing themselves.

The social and economic framework of elite soccer exposes the coaches

to high psychological pressure. Elite soccer coaches are usually subjected to

constant public exposure of their decisions, permanent demand of sports

outcomes and unpredictability of the competition, among other factors.

According to Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002), coaches are often

required to deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete

performance – related issues, decision making) while also ensuring that their

own psychological and emotional states remain optimal. Regarding

psychological skills training (PST), Buceta (1998), revealed that the coach has a

double function, stimulating interpersonal skills that positively influence the

psychological preparation of their athletes, and regulating personal skills to

optimize their own psychological state. According to Thelwell, Weston,

Greenlees, and Hutchings (2008a), the coach could well be labeled a

performer, however what is not known is the degree to which coaches uses

PST to enable them to perform.

The objective of PST is to assist sport participants to achieve

performance success and personal well-being (Vealey, 2007). In PST it is

possible to distinguish between psychological skills and psychological

techniques (Vealey, 1988, 2007). PST consists of a systematic use of

psychological techniques (e.g., goal setting, self-talk, imagery, and relaxation) in

order to develop and enhance psychological skills (e.g., stress management,

self-confidence, and concentration) (Burton & Raedeke, 2008; Vealey, 2007).

97

Goal setting, relaxation, imagery, and self-talk are the psychological

techniques most referred to in literature as powerful tools to enhance the

development of psychological skills and are usually developed in a combined

process during PST programs (Andersen, 2000; McCarthy, Jones, Harwood, &

Olivier, 2010; Vealey, 2007).

Imagery, or the mental creation or re-creation of sensory experiences in

the mind, is the most widely studied technique in the mental training literature

(Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Vealey, 2007). Researchers have found positive

effects of imagery on performance enhancement (Evans, Jones, & Mullen,

2004; Kossert, & Munroe-Chandler, 2007) and other psychological variables

such as confidence (Callow, Hardy, & Hall, 2001; Hale & Whitehouse, 1998),

motivation (Martin & Hall, 1995), attentional control (Calmels, Berthoumieux, &

d’Arripe-Longueville, 2004), and coping with anxiety (Evans et al., 2004).

Another technique popularly used in PST interventions is goal setting. In

goal setting, individuals try to achieve a group of behavioural targets previously

defined (Brewer, 2009). Goal setting is an extremely powerful technique for

enhancing performance (Weinberg, & Gould, 2011). Physical activity goal

research (Burton & Naylor, 2002; Burton, Naylor, & Holliday, 2001; Gould, 2006;

Hall & Kerr, 2001) supported the effectiveness of goals in the sport domain. In a

meta-analysis of sport goal research, Kyllo and Landers (1995) examined 36

studies and found that goal setting have a substantial influence on performance.

Burton and Weiss (2008) recent sport goal setting review presented a similar

conclusion.

A third mental training technique studied in sport psychology is self-talk.

According to Hardy (2006), self-talk should be defined as: “a) verbalizations or

statements addressed to the self; b) multidimensional in nature; c) having

interpretive elements association with the content of statements employed; d) is

somewhat dynamic; and e) serving at least two functions; instructional and

motivational” (p. 84). A number of intervention studies reflect the potential

benefits of self-talk on sport performance (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis,

& Theodorakis, 2011; Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Perkos,

Theodorakis, & Chroni, 2002).

98

Finally, relaxation techniques require the ability to voluntarily decrease

the amount of tension in muscles, calm the mind by keeping it productively

occupied and decrease autonomic responses (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure)

(Brewer, 2009). An extensive review by Greenspan and Feltz (1989) concluded

that relaxation is effective in improving performance. Therefore, it is not

surprising that many successful athletes use this specific technique to improve

performance

Although the previous four key psychological techniques have been

extensively examined in athletes, as yet, little is known regarding the extent to

which they are used by coaches for their own performance. To our knowledge,

we could only identify one study focusing on this specific research topic.

Thelwell et al. (2008a) conducted an exploratory investigation with 13 elite-level

coaches to examine their use of self-talk, imagery, relaxation, and goal setting.

Results indicated a more frequent use and greater number of purposes for

using self-talk and imagery than relaxation and goal setting. While the

aforementioned study offered a valuable insight into the psychological

techniques used by coaches, a more detailed understanding in this area of

research is necessary. In particular, on the imagery and self-talk content (what

coaches say to themselves and what they imagine), as well as on the type of

goals and relaxation strategies that they employed.

Furthermore, the Thelwell et al. (2008a) study employed an elite mixed

coach population (e.g., golf, sailing, cricket, gymnastics, rugby, athletics,

soccer, and field hockey). With Thelwell et al. (2008a) suggesting that

psychological techniques used might depend on the type of sport in question,

research is necessary within a single-sport population. Elite soccer coaches

were chosen for the focus of the study for several reasons. First, elite soccer

coaches are the subject of much public interest and media attention in the

world. Second, there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding the top level

soccer coaches and the methods that they utilize in their coaching routines

(Potrac, Jones, & Cushion, 2007).

Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to examine and describe

the Portuguese elite soccer coaches’ use (where, when, what, and why) of a

99

group of psychological techniques (self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and

relaxation) for their performance.

Method

Participants

A sample of 13 male professional “elite soccer” coaches composed this

study. The coaches’ age ranged from 43 to 63 years (50.6 ± 5.8 years; mean ±

SD) and their coaching experience ranged from 10 to 29 years. In accord with

the recommendations of Patton (2002), purposive criteria sampling was

employed to enhance the potential of “information rich” participants being

included. The selection criteria required the coaches that currently work with

elite-level athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005), to be employed by

their respective governing bodies of sport (national squads) or by professional

clubs (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008b), and have a minimum

of ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom et al., 1997; Sedgwick,

Côté, & Dowd, 1997).

At the time of the interview, all the participants occupied head coach

positions in Portuguese soccer league clubs. Furthermore, all of them had the

license required by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA Pro

License) to manage a soccer club in the top level of the nation’s league, as well

as, in the UEFA Champions league or UEFA European league.

The interview and procedures

The participants were all initially contacted by telephone, informed of the

nature of the investigation, and asked about if they would be willing to

participate (all 13 coaches who were contacted agreed to participate). A time

was arranged to meet each participant at a venue of his choosing. Nine of the

interviews took place in the coaches’ offices before or after a training session

and the remaining interviews were conducted in a hotel room (n=1) and

coaches’ homes (n=3). The interviews were conducted face-to-face with all of

the participants by the first author who had previous experience of working as a

professional assistant coach in Portuguese premier league clubs and was

100

therefore familiar with the experiences and terminology used by the participants.

Interviews were digitally recorded and lasted between 60 to 90 minutes.

An interview-guide approach ensured that the same questions were

asked of all participants while still allowing the interview to use probes as

necessary (Patton, 2002). The guide was based on previous studies that have

investigated psychological techniques used by athletes (Hardy, Gammage, &

Hall, 2001; Munroe-Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000; Munroe-

Chandler, Hall, & Weinberg, 2004) and developed in accordance with the

specific purposes of the current investigation. The interview guide consisted of

six sections. The first section contained demographic information and other

introductory comments. The second until the fifth section followed similar

procedures but were focused on each psychological technique (i.e. section 2-

self-talk; section 3- imagery; section 4- goal setting; and section 5- relaxation).

Prior to each of these sections, participants were briefly clarified about the

meaning of each psychological technique. Then, coaches were asked about the

importance assigned to each psychological technique and its use. Areas of

questioning were generated around topics such as, “where” (e.g., “Where do

you use [psychological technique]?”), “when” (e.g., “In training, when do you

use [psychological technique]?“), “what” (e.g., “Provide a description of your

images (e.g., what are you seeing, hearing, feeling)?”; “Provide a description of

your self-talk) and “why” (e.g., “What are the reasons for your use

[psychological technique]?) each psychological technique was employed.

The interview guide was pilot-tested with three professional Portuguese

soccer assistant coaches, following which minor refinements to the guide were

made. This process also served to improve the interviewer’s familiarity with the

interview guide and the technical procedures of the interview, as well as to

enhance interview skills (Nordin & Cumming, 2005).

Data analysis

The data were analysed using hierarchical content data analysis

procedures recommended by Patton (2002). The specific procedure adopted in

the current study comprised the following steps:

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1. The tapes were initially listened to and then the transcripts were read

and reread by the first author until he was fully familiar with the content.

2. Raw data themes were identified from quotes, characterizing each

participant’s responses within each area of the interview.

3. Data were appropriately coded

4. Both inductive and deductive content analysis was conducted to

identify common themes from the lists of raw data obtained. Deductive analysis

ensured that answers discussing specific content were related to the question

being asked. Once content responses were matched to “appropriate questions”,

inductive analysis was conducted. First, second and third-order subthemes

established were labeled “higher order themes”, with the highest themes giving

a general description of the experience labeled as “general dimensions”.

5. In order to control individual bias and ensure verifiability of the findings

all the data were presented and discussed with another author to act as “devil´s

advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995).

6. To provide an ultimate validity check, the first author checked once

more all the findings.

7. Frequency analysis was conducted to represent the number of each

raw data themes citations and the number of coaches that referred each higher-

order themes.

Results

The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions (self-

talk, imagery, self-talk and relaxation) emerging from 161 raw data themes

mentioned by the elite soccer coaches.

Self-talk

The results of the current study showed that all of the participants employ

some form of self-talk in their coaching roles. The self-talk dimension shows the

coaches’ perspective on their use of self-talk, and included 63 raw data themes

that emerged into three third-order subthemes: locations and time frame (where

and when), content (what), and functions of self-talk (why) (Figure 1).

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The first third-order subtheme provides information about the locations

and time frame of soccer coaches self-talk. The interviews revealed that soccer

coaches employed self-talk at soccer related venues (e.g., “in the field”; “in

dressing room”), as well as at non-soccer related venues (e.g. “home”; “car”).

Participants also reported using self-talk before, during, and after both training

and competition environments. In this context, it should be noted that the use of

self-talk was predominant before and during the competition setting.

With respect to the second third-order subtheme, content of self-talk, four

second-order subthemes emerged: valence, structure, overtness and person.

The first second-order subtheme referred to the valence of self-talk that is

anchored with the bi-polar descriptors of positive and negative self-talk. The

positive self-talk referred to encouragement or talk that one could be successful

and was used by six of the participants. The following quotes provide some

examples of positive self-talk used by some of the participants: “I believe we

can do it”; “I know who I am and I am one of the best”. On the other hand,

negative self-talk was self-critical or represented an inability to succeed and

was cited by three participants. Negative self-talk used by the soccer coaches is

exemplified in the next quotes: “why did I do that” or “this is too hard”. Four of

the participants also stated that they used both positive and negative self-talk.

The following quote shows this perspective: “I usually use positive self-talk, but

sometimes I also use negative…it depends on the situation and the context, but

generally I use the positive”.

The second second-order subtheme, structure of self-talk, represented

the manner in which expert soccer coaches talk to themselves. In this second

order-subtheme, participants mentioned employing single cue words (e.g.

“calm”, “focus” or “breathe”), phrases (e.g., we “can do it”, “let’s go” or “chance

now”) and full sentences (e.g., “do not give up, maintain focused on the game”).

The overtness second-order subtheme is concerned with how coaches’

self-statements are verbalized. Specifically, the overtness dimension related to

whether the self-talk was overt (external) or covert (internal). According to three

of the participants, self-talk was spoken out loud in a manner that allows

another individual to hear what was said (overt). The following expression is

103

quite representative of this overt perspective: “Usually I talk to myself out loud it

is something that comes out naturally of me”. On the other hand, six participants

employed self-talk using a small voice inside one’s head, and so cannot be

heard by another individual (covert). Also in this context it should be noted that

three of the participants cited used both overt and covert perspectives.

Finally, the last second-order subtheme is referred to the ‘person’ that

soccer coaches talk to themselves. Participants reported talking to themselves

in the first-person singular (i.e. I or me), in the second- person (i.e. you), as well

as in the first-person plural (i.e. we).

The final third-order subtheme, functions of self-talk, was comprised by

the cognitive motivational function of self-talk.

The cognitive function of self-talk, related the use of self-talk to enhance

several coaching skills. For example, one of the most frequently cited use of

cognitive function of self-talk was to provide effective feedback for the players

and team, as illustrated in the following quote: “Many times I use this (self-talk)

in order to improve the quality of the feedback that I send to my players and

teams. So I use this to provide feedback more effectively”.

Several participants also highlighted the use of self-talk in order to

optimize their psychological state (motivational function), (e.g., reduce anxiety

levels, enhance self-confidence, and motivation, to remain focused, to psych

up, and coping with difficulties). The next quotation is quite representative of

this last purpose: “I often talk to myself to overcome some difficulties that I face

in my job”.

104

Raw Data Themes

First Order subthemes


Third Order subthemes

General Dim.

• Competition (n=13) • Training (n=11) • On the field (n=3) • In dressing room (n=1) • In the (coaches) office (n=2) • In substitutes bench (n=2)

Soccer related venues (n=13)

Locations (where) (n=13)

Locations and times

frame (where

and when)

Self-ta

lk

• At home (n=4) • In the car (n=2) • Hotel room (n=1) • Airplane (n=1) • Team bus (n=1)

Non soccer

related venues (n=6)

• Before practice (n=4) • During practice (n=9) • In half-time (n=2) • After practice (n=6)

Training (n=11)

Times frame

(when) (n=13)

• Before the game (n=12) • During the game (n=10) • After competition (n=2)

Competition

(n=13)

• Used positive self-talk (n=6) (e.g., ”I believe we can do it”; ”Good job man!”;”I have to continue like this”) • Used negative self-talk (n=3) (e.g.,”Why did I do that”; ”Stupid mistake”; ”Why I did not substitute that player) • Both positive and negative self-talk (n=4)

Valence (n=13)

Content of

self-talk (what)

• Used single cue words (n=4) (e.g., ”Calm”; ”Focus”; ”Breath”; ”Relax”) • Used phrases (n=8) (e.g.,“We can do it”; ”Let’s go”; “Change now”) • Used full sentences (n=9) (e.g., ”Relax, I need stay calm at the end of the game”; ”Not give up, maintain focused”)

Structure (n=13)

• It’s certainly internal (n=3) • I talk only for me no one can hear me (n=1) • I do not share it with anyone (n=1) • It is not pleasant talk to myself in out loud (n=1)

Covert self-talk (n=6)

Overtness (n=13)

• Sometimes it is external (n=1) • Talk to my-self in out loud (n=1) • Sometimes those who are closed to me can hear my self-talk (n=1)

Overt self-talk (n=3)

• Switching internal and external perspectives (n=2) • It’s usually internal but in some moments unconsciously I talk in out loud (n=1)

Both covert and overt

(n=3)

• First singular person (“I”; “me”) (n=7) • Second singular person (“you”) (n=5) • First plural person (“we”) (n=3)

Person (n=13)

105

Figure1. continued

Raw Data Themes




General Dim.

• Provide demonstrations (n=2) • Provided better instructions and explanations (n=4) • Provided effective feedbacks (n=1) • Analysed the competition and training sessions (n=1) • Conducted effective observation (n=1) • Help to plan the training session (n=1)

Execute and

improve tecnhical

skills (n=6)

Enhance several

coaching skills

(cognitive function) (n=11)

Functions of

self-talk (why)

• Elaborated team talk (n=3) • Help pre pared media speech (n=2)

Develop communuca-

tion skills (n=4)

• Improve the team offensive process (n=1) • Improve the team defensive process (n=1) • Improve game model (n=1)

Improve team tactical factors (n=2)

Self-T

alk

• To make substitutions in the game (n=2) • To make tactical changes in the game (n=1) • To “attack” the weakness of the opponent in game (n=1)

Execute tactical game

decisions (n=2)

• To Reduce stress and anxiety (n=5) • To calm my nerves (n=1)

Stress management

(n=6)

Regulate personal

psychologi-cal skills

(motivational function)

(n=9)

• To maintain motivation (n=1) • To increase motivation (n=3)

Enhance motivation

(n=3)

• To increase self-confidence (n=2) • To maintain self-confidence (n=1) • To feel prepared (n=1)

Enhance self-

confidence (n=3)

• Stay focus on tasks (n=2) • To clear my mind and concentrate in team performance (n=1)

Focus (n=2)

• To work through difficult situations (n=1) • To dealing with adversity (n=1)

Cope with difficulties

(n=2)

• To get myself excited for the game (n=1) • To psych myself up (n=1)

Psyched up (n=2)

Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension


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Imagery

The interviews revealed that ten of the coaches highlighted employing

imagery to improve their own performance. When these participants were asked

about their use of imagery, 58 raw data themes were identified. This dimension

emerged from three third-order subthemes: locations (where and when),

content of imagery (what), and functions of imagery (why) (Figure 2).

Participants of the current study indicated employing imagery in several

soccer and non-soccer related venues. Soccer coaches also indicated using

imagery more in conjunction with competition than training and more before

competition than any other time frame.

The content of soccer coaches’ imagery was categorized into the nature

of imagery and types of imagery, second order-subthemes.

The nature of imagery consisted of responses concerning positive and

negative imagery. Several participants constantly offered descriptions of

positive imagery. For example, one coach said:

Normally before the games I visualize my team having a good

performance, to perform tactical movements that we trained, to make

great plays and goals…Indeed I imagine a set of great team moments in

order to boost my self-confidence to the game.

However, four coaches also expressed using negative imagery. One of

them reported that it occurred unintentionally. The following quotation is quite

representative of that:

I don´t use this (negative imagery) consciously, it isn’t something that I

want to visualize, but sometimes I visualize negative pictures about my

tactical decisions. For example, sometimes I imagine that my tactical

decisions don’t run like I expected during the game

In this context, one of the interviewed coaches raised an interesting

perspective regarding their use of negative images. This coach described using

negative imagery in their coaching routines to help prevent possible tactical

errors. The next comment expresses this perspective:

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The negative images help me to anticipate the action and prevent some

tactical errors during the game. For example, after an opponent’s corner I

imagine that they put the ball on the second post and these images serve

to rectify some of my players positions in our defensive zone. Evidently

the opposing team is thoroughly studied and most of the possible

situations are trained in the week. However the game is unpredictable

and sometimes small details of opposing players lead me to place

negative images in my head, and like I said, it helps me to reposition

some of my players.

Regarding the second-order subtheme, types of imagery, the coaches’

images tended to be multisensory, incorporating mainly visual but also

kinesthetic and auditory senses. The following quotation is quite representative

of the visual imagery: “For me the imagery translates into an internal vision of

certain situations…it is like a film that runs inside my head”.

The third-order subtheme, function of imagery, refers to why soccer

coaches used imagery in their coaching routines. As in the case of self-talk,

participants reported using imagery to enhance the performance of several

coaching skills (cognitive function) and to optimize their psychological skills

(motivational function).

With reference to cognitive function, participants reported using imagery

to execute and improve several technical skills, to improve team tactical factors,

and to execute tactical game decisions.

Regarding motivational functions, the interviews revealed that imagery

was employed by the soccer coaches to manage stress, enhance motivation,

self-confidence, to remain focused, to psych up and cope with difficulties.

108

Raw Data Themes




General Dim.

• Competition (n=10) • Training (n=5) • On the field (n=4) • In dressing room (n=3) • In the (coaches) office (n=1) • In substitutes bench (n=1)



Locations and times

frame (where

and when)

Imag

ery

• At home (n=3) • In the car (n=3) • Airplane (n=1) • Team bus (n=1)

Non soccer related

venues (n=5)

• Before practice (n=3) • During practice (n=1) • After practice (n=1)

Training

(n=5)

Times frame (when) (n=10)

• Before the game (n=9) • During the game (n=5) • After competition (n=2)

Competition (n=10)

• Visualize myself performing well (n=2) • Imagine that everything will be fine (n=2) • Picture nice places before the game (n=1) • Imagine myself given the correct feedbacks to the players (n=1) • Visualize nice things before the game (n=1) • Imagine team positive outcomes (n=1) • Imagine my team playing very well and making amazing tactical movements (n=1)

Positive images (n=9)

Nature (n=10)

Content of imagery (what)

• Visualize that tactical movements not occurred as we would like (n=2) • It is not conscious but sometimes I picture negative team outcomes (n=1) • Sometimes I picture negative images to prevent possible tactical errors (n=1)

Negative images (n=4)

• Visual (n=6) • I see myself performing during the game (n=1) • It is like a movie into my mind (n=1) • It is like a screen TV (n=1) • Seeing several pictures in my mind (n=1)

Visual (n=9)

Type (n=10)

• A feel or a sensation of calm during some difficult situations (n=1) • Sometimes I also feel my movements during the training session(n=1)

Kinesthetic (n=2)

•Hearing the crowd (n=1) Auditory

(n=1)

• Provided effective feedbacks (n=4) • Execute demonstrations (n=2) • Provided instructions and explanations (n=1) • Help to plan the training session (n=1) • Detect personal technical errors (n=1) • Analysed personal performance in training and competition (n=1)

Execute and

improve tecnhical

skills (n=5)

´ Enhance several

coaching skills

(cognitive function)

Functions of imagery

(why)

109

Figure.2 continued

Raw Data Themes




General Dim.

• Improve the team offensive process (n=2) • Improve the team defensive process (n=2) • Developed new offensive and defensive strategies (e.g. corners , free kicks) (n=1) • Improve team’s tactical weakness (n=1)

Improve team tactical

factors (n=4)

Enhance several

coaching skills

(cognitive function)

(n=9)

• To explore the opposing team weakness (n=1) • Make tactical critical decisions (n=2) • Adapt to different game situations (n=1)

Execute tactical game

decisions (n=3)

Im

ag

ery

• Reduce stress and anxiety (n=3) • To help control the anxiety (n=1)

Stress management

(n=4)

Regulate personal

psych. skills (motivational

function) (n=7)

Functions of

imagery (why)

• Maintain motivation (n=1) • To motivated (n=2)

Enhance motivation

(n=3)

• To gain self-confidence (n=1 • To elicit feelings of self-confidence (n=1)

Enhance self-

confidence (n=2)

• To remain focussed (n=1) • To help maintain focus (n=1)

Focus (n=2)

• To help through difficult circumstances (n=1) • To overcome difficult situations (n=1)


(n=2)

• To psyched myself up (n=1) Psyched up (n=1)

Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the imagery general dimension

Goal-setting

When the coaches were asked to discuss the goals they set for

themselves, only six of the participants cited its use. The goal setting

dimension, included 33 raw data themes that emerged into the following third-

order subthemes: locations and time frames (where and when), types of goals

(what), and purposes for setting goals (why) (Figure 3).

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Raw Data Themes




General Dim.

• Competition (n=6) • Training (n=4) • In the (coaches) office (n=3) • In dressing room (n=1)



Locations and times

frame (where

and when)

Go

al s

ettin

g

• At home (n=3) • In the car (n=1)

Non soccer related venues

(n=3)


Training (n=4)

Times frame

(when) (n=6)

• Before the competition (n=6) • During the game (n=4) • After competition (n=2)

Competition (n=6)

• Outcome (team/ personal) goals (n=4) (e.g., ”win the league”; ”be the best coach in the league”) • Performance (team/ personal) goals (n=6) • Process goals (n=2)

Goal types

(n=6)

Types of Goals (what)

• Long –term goals (n=4) • Medium term goals (n=2) • Short-term goals (n=6)

Goal proximity

(n=6)

• Improve technical skills (n=1) • Benefitting communication (n=1)

Improve coaching tecnhical

skills (n=2)

´

Personal development

(n=4)

Purposes (why)

• Ensure personal motivation (n=4) • To stay focused (n=1)

Enhance personal p. skills (n=4)

• Improve themselves as coaches (n=1) • Improve my overall performance (n=1)

Improve overall

performance (n=2)

• Increase team motivation (n=3) • Maintain team motivation (n=1)

Enhance team/players p.skills (n=3)

Team / players

development (n=4)

• Improve the offensive process (n=1) • Improve the defensive process (n=1) • Improve team tactical performance (n=1)

Improve team tactical performance

(n=2)

• Provide direction for team (n=2) • Provide direction for themselves (n=2)

Provide direction

(n=3)

• Helping the players became successful (n=2) • Achieve personal success (n=1)

Achieve success

(n=2)

Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of the goal setting general dimension

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The interviews showed that the coaches set more competition than

practice goals. In addition the participants expressed setting goals more before

the competition than any other time frame.

Although the soccer coaches of the current study employed outcome,

performance and process goals in relation to their own coaching goals, the

focus was most definitely on performance goals. However, one of the coaches

noted that outcome goals are basically out of their control, so their focus was

more on what they could control. The following quote depicts this perspective:

I use outcome goals and performance goals, but I prefer the last rather

than the former…and why? Because the performance goals are more

dependent on our own effort and work…I like to set goals related to my

own performance as coach and goals related with the performance of my

team.

With regard to the goal proximity second-order subtheme, coaches

reported setting long-, medium-, and short–term goals, although the emphasis

was clearly on the short-term goals. The focus on short-term goals tended to be

practice to practice and competition to competition, depending on the specific

needs of the team, as well as the different moments of the season. The next

sentence expresses this perspective:

Usually, I set long and short goals, but no doubt that the emphasis goes

to the short goals. As you know our profession is very unstable and

consequently it is not easy to achieve long goals. So, I prefer to set short

goals. I like to set goals constantly. Session by session and game by

game I set and reformulate personal goals.

The third-order subtheme, goal purpose, describes the reasons for

soccer coaches setting personal goals and was abstracted into four second-

order subthemes: personal development, team/players development, provide

direction and achieve success.

Regarding the first second-order subtheme, personal development,

coaches revealed setting goals to improve their technical skills, to enhance

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several personal psychological skills and to improve their overall performance.

With reference to the enhancement of several personal psychological skills,

first-order subtheme, four coaches mentioned employing goal-setting to ensure

personal motivation, as illustrated in the next sentence.

The goals that I establish for myself serve to keep me constantly

motivated…the goals serve to remind me where I want to be and what

I’ve done to get here and this gives me the motivation to continue my

work

Goal setting was also employed by some coaches to develop their

players and teams. In this context, some coaches revealed using setting goals

to increase the players and team motivation, and to improve tactical team

performance (e.g., improve offensive and defensive process).

Additional purposes for soccer coaches setting personal goals were to

provide direction for themselves and their teams, as well as to achieve personal

success and help their players to succeed. The latter reason is explained in

more detail in the following quote: “I also set personal goals to help my players

succeed...help them to go to the national team, to win individual titles, to go to

big clubs, because when that happens you are doing good work”.

Relaxation

Relaxation was the least employed technique with only two soccer

coaches citing its use. This dimension only contained seven raw data themes

abstracted into the following three third-order subthemes: locations and time

frame (where and when), types of relaxation strategies, and purposes for using

relaxation. Unlike the previous psychological techniques, relaxation was only

employed before (n=2) the competition. In addition, the two coaches used

relaxation only in the form of breathing exercises (n=2). Results also revealed

that relaxation was used by the coaches to stay focused (n=1) and to reduce

anxiety levels (n=2). With reference to this last purpose, the following quotation

suggests why relaxation is beneficial: “I used exercises for breathing control, to

help me to reduce the stress and tension before the game because as you

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know during the competition period a leader must have a calm and serene

image”.

Discussion

The purpose of the current study was to examine the use of four

psychological techniques (i.e. self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and relaxation) by

elite soccer coaches for their performance. Globally, participants reported a

more frequent use of self-talk and imagery than goal-setting and relaxation.

These findings are not surprising because both techniques (self-talk and

imagery) “enable individuals to interpret feelings and perceptions, regulate and

change their evaluations, and give themselves instructions and reinforcement”

(Thelwell et al., 2008a, p. 49).

An interesting finding revealed by the interviews was that the majority of

the coaches mentioned using psychological techniques more frequently before

the competition and, in general, more in conjunction with competition than

practice. This finding can explain how crucial the time prior to competition is for

coach performance preparation. Moreover, it should be noted that before the

game, and in particular during the warm up of the team, the soccer head coach

is not directly involved in any activity and, consequently, he has more

opportunities to use psychological techniques to prepare himself for the

competition. This is a possible explanation. However it is also very likely that

coaches remember more the use of these techniques in crucial situations, as

compared to, emotionally speaking, irrelevant situations. For example, it could

be possible that coaches often use psychological techniques sitting alone in

their office preparing for practice or competition. In regard to this issue, it should

be kept in mind that not the actual use of psychological techniques was studied

in the current study, but the coaches’ perceptions of its use.

During the interviews the participants provided extensive information

about their use of self-talk and it was clear that they believed that this

psychological technique served valuable roles in their coaching routines.

With regard to the content (what coaches said to themselves), the

findings of the present study suggested some potential dimensions for soccer

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coaches self-talk. They also support previous findings in the athlete self-talk

literature. Most of the soccer coaches self-talk was positive and covert, that

lends support to Hardy, Hall, and Hardy (2005, Study 2) quantitative study with

recreational volleyball players, as well as to Van Raalte et al., (1994) proposal.

These last authors suggested that positive self-talk might be more likely to be

internalized by the individual than the negative self-talk. Although most of

soccer coaches’ self-talk is positive and covert it seems clear that in certain

circumstances their self-talk were also negative and covert. In line with this

finding, several researchers suggested that negative (Hardy et al., 2001) and

covert (Vygotsky, 1986) occurs more in demanding and challenging situations

(e.g., highly stressful situations or when under pressure).

Another aspect of the content of soccer coaches’ self-talk that emerged

in the present study was the structure dimension. Participants reported that they

talked to themselves using short phrases and complete sentences with

approximately the same frequency. This finding seems to make some intuitive

sense. For example, when soccer coaches are providing demonstration,

instruction or feedback it may be more efficient to use short phrases. On the

other hand, when they are planning or conduct analyzes and observation it may

be more useful to use complete sentences.

Finally the present study extends previous findings regarding the person

dimension of the self-talk content. In contrast to the athletes (Hardy et al., 2001)

and exercisers (Gammage, Hardy, & Hall, 2001), participants of the current

study tended to talk to themselves not only in the first and second-person

singular but also in the first-person plural. One possible explanation for this

finding may have been due to the coaches’ performance is directly linked to

their team performance.

Regarding to the functions of self-talk (why), results revealed that soccer

coaches used both motivational and cognitive functions which is consistent with

the previous findings in the athletes’ self-talk literature (Hardy et al., 2001). It

must be noted that soccer coaches reported using cognitive functions slightly

more than motivational ones. By contrast, athletes’ self-talk (Hardy et al., 2001)

has been shown to be used most frequently for motivational purposes. One

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possible explanation for these differences is that athletes usually have already

acquired most of the skills and strategies of their sport and consequently they

make greater use of motivational self-talk functions. On the other hand, soccer

coaches used self-talk not only to maximize their psychological state

(motivational functions) but mainly to enhance the performance of several

coaching skills (which in turn improve their interventions with players and

teams). This finding is not surprising because “the most obvious task of the

coach is to help athletes and teams to perform their full potential” (Côté,

Salmela, & Russell, 1995, p. 76).

The present study indicated that self-talk was used by the coaches for

the development and execution of several coaching skills. Future research

should explore both functions in more depth, as well as examine more fully their

effectiveness of coach’s performance. Data also showed that the motivational

function was mentioned less frequently than the cognitive one. However it is

important to highlight that the motivational function seems to be relevant for the

coach performance and also deserves further investigation.

An additional finding for the motivational function was the larger number

of coaches that reported using self-talk to reduce stress and anxiety. The high

psychological pressure that the soccer coach is constantly subject (by the

media, fans, directors…) may be the basis of this result.

Results of the current study clearly indicate that participants used self-

talk in their coaching process. However, what is not known is whether they use

self-talk as effectively as possible and this warrants further examination.

Therefore, future research should examine the effectiveness of the content,

cognitive and motivational self-talk functions on soccer coach performance.

Quantitative and experimental studies will certainly provide valuable information

for sport psychologists to develop more effective and specific self-talk

interventions among soccer coaches.

The current study also provided insight into the content of coaches’

images in their coaching routines. Results of our study showed that the

coaches’ images tend to be more positive rather than negative. Several

researches (Powell, 1973; Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985), showed that the

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use of positive imagery enhances athletes’ sport performance. Presumably, the

use of positive imagery by soccer coaches can provide a similar benefit (i.e.

enhance the performance of the coach / enhance coaching effectiveness).

Future research should be conducted to confirm this hypothesis. Although the

majority of imagery described by the soccer coaches was positive, it should be

noted that the use of negative imagery was also reported by some of the

participants. At this context, one coach mentioned that the negative images

during the competition can serve to prevent possible bad tactical decisions.

Although the athletes’ imagery literature revealed that negative imagery can

have a damaging influence on performance (Woolfolk et al., 1985), our results

suggested that this type of imagery might play an important role in competition

coaching routines.

Another interesting aspect of imagery content that emerged in the

present study was that the majority of the participants reported using visual

imagery more than any other type (e.g., kinesthetic, auditory). This finding was

not surprising, since as Jedlic, Hall, Munroe-Chandler, and Hall (2007) stated,

vision is the dominant sense in imagery. Several researches, however have

noted the potential importance of kinesthetic imagery (Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983;

Mumford & Hall, 1985). In line with this, some of the participants of our study

highlighted the use of this type of imagery. While soccer coaches reported

making use of visual, kinesthetic and auditory imagery, there is no evidence of

its effectiveness in the performance of the coach. Future examination of how

these types of imagery might influence the performance of the soccer coach is

certainly warranted.

With respect to the functions (why) of imagery, the findings of our

analysis seem to suggest that this psychological technique was used by

coaches for many of the same (cognitive and motivational) reasons that they

use self-talk. Similarly to self-talk, most of the participants expressed using

imagery to regulate their anxiety levels. This finding may be connected with the

predominant use of both techniques after competition pointed out by

participants. Coaches may experience feelings such as anxiety, nervousness,

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and doubt immediately prior to competitions, and therefore, may benefit greatly

from this specific function of both self-talk and imagery.

In the athletes’ imagery (Munroe-Chandler et al., 2000) and self-talk

(Hardy et al., 2001) literature, it was proposed that in order to gain the greatest

benefit from their imagery or self-talk interventions, consultants should match

the function of imagery/self-talk being used with the desired outcome. For

example, if athletes want to improve their self-confidence it would be best for

them to make use of motivational mastery imagery or motivational mastery self-

talk, respectively. In addition, Hardy et al., (2001) suggested that greater

benefits may be realized if the athlete were to use motivational mastery imagery

in combination with motivational mastery self-talk. We believe the same is true

for the interventions with soccer coaches. Thus, encouraging soccer coaches to

use imagery and self-talk in combination would seem to be a logical approach.

The findings relating to goal setting showed that less than half of the

sample to cited its use. A marked reduction was also seen in the number of

purposes for which coaches use goal setting compared with self-talk and

imagery. Our findings need to be carefully analyzed because the coaches of the

current study were only required to discuss the goals that they set for

themselves, which meant that there was a limit on the focus on teams and

athlete-related goals. Results of our analysis also revealed that the most

frequent reasons given for coaches setting personal coaching goals was to

provide direction and to increase/maintain personal motivation. Burton and

Raedeke (2008) considered these purposes as some of the major mechanisms

by which goals operate.

Regarding the type of goals, results revealed that coaches used

outcome, performance and process goals. Although cases can be made to

focus on one type of goal or another, all three types of goals can be effective in

enhancing performance and have a positive effect on behavior (Weinberg &

Butt, 2011). Along these lines, Weinberg, Harmison, Rosenkranz, and Hookom

(2005) stated that process and performance goals require the development of

skills and strategies necessary to achieve outcome measures.

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Also in this context, Kingston and Hardy (1997) found that focusing on

process goals not only led to enhanced performance, but also improved

psychological factors such as concentration, cognitive anxiety control and self-

efficacy. It is encouraging to see that soccer coaches are including the three

types of goals; however, Kingston and Hardy (1997) noted the best mix of

process, performance and outcome goals for maximum effectiveness needs to

be determined.

The findings relating to goal setting also revealed that coaches set long-,

medium-, and short-term goals. This is a very important procedure because

having specific goals through the sports season is one of the most powerful to

increase performance (Porter, 2003).

Finally, our findings showed a clear underuse of relaxation techniques.

This may be considered a fact for concern, since the literature reported several

benefits from relaxation, such as the ability to cope with the pressure of

competition, particularly at the highest levels (Hanton, Thomas, & Mellalieu,

2009). A possible explanation for this fact can be assumed by the lack of

knowledge of the full range of relaxation-based strategies, as well as by the lack

of collaboration with sport psychologists. Although there are a variety of

strategies to help subjects to relax (e.g., diaphragmic breathing, progressive

muscular relaxation and self-directed relaxation) (Burton & Raedeke, 2008),

controlled breathing for relaxation was the only method mentioned by the two

coaches that employed relaxation in their routines. This finding was not

surprising, because controlled breathing for relaxation is partially a natural

innate technique (Caruso, 2004).

Nevertheless, it should be noted that the present study examined the

coaches’ perceptions and not the actual use of psychological techniques. In this

sense, it is possible that coaches use relaxation in some way even they did not

report its use consciously.

Conclusion

The present study revealed that elite Portuguese soccer coaches had a

more frequent use and greater number of reasons for using self-talk and

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imagery than goal setting. On the other hand, participants mentioned a lesser

use of relaxation. Another important finding was that the soccer coaches

reported to use the psychological techniques more in conjunction with

competition than practice. Moreover, the present study pointed out valuable

information about the content and function of self-talk and imagery used by the

coaches, as well as the type of goals that they set for themselves.

Due to the lack of studies examining the efficacy of psychological

techniques on soccer coaches’ performance, it would be inappropriate to draw

firm implications from the findings. Nevertheless, we contend that before

examining this issue (i.e. techniques-performance link in the coaches) it is

necessary to examine whether psychological techniques use is evident, as well

as where, when, why and how these techniques are used. In this sense, the

data of the current study provides an important step. Future research should

now examine the efficacy of the psychological techniques on soccer coaches’

performance.

For practitioners the data of this study may serve as a useful tool for

developing more specific and effective psychological interventions. For

example, knowing the psychological techniques used by the Portuguese soccer

coaches, the sport psychologist might be able to develop more specific

interventions for the coaches with whom they work.

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Paper V

Psychological skills training in Portuguese premier soccer league:

Players’ perspectives and experiences 5

____________________

5 Submitted

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Abstract

The aim of the present study was to examine soccer players’ perspectives and

experiences regarding psychological skills training (PST). Semi structured, in-

depth, qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 players from elite

Portuguese premier league soccer teams that played regularly in UEFA

champions and Europe Leagues. Results indicated that participants highlighted

the importance of PST (n=16) and showed receptivity to PST interventions

(n=13). Nevertheless more than half of the sample (n=12) mentioned a

complete lack of PST interventions. A list of barriers to PST was elicited in the

present study and included the lack of sport psychologists available in soccer,

the mentality and culture of some soccer administrators and coaches, the lack

of PST knowledge of players and coaches, the lack of soccer knowledge on the

part of the psychologists, and negative players’ perceptions of PST. Potential

practical implications and suggestions for future PST research applied to soccer

are provided.

Key-words: psychological skills training, soccer, elite, players, interviews,

qualitative

.

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Introduction

Currently the importance of psychological skills training (PST) in the

development of sport performance is widely recognized (Birrer & Morgan, 2010;

Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995; Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medbery, &

Peterson, 1999; Gould, Medbery, Damarjian, & Lauer, 1999; Thiese &

Hudleston, 1999). To be able to perform well in sports, not only intense physical

training but also PST is required (Gould, Damarjian, & Medbery, 1999).

Therefore it is not surprising that recently, the PST research applied to

soccer has received considerable attention. Several scientific articles have been

published supporting the positive influence of PST on soccer-based

performance (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Munroe-

Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, Murphy, & Hall, 2012; Thelwell, Greenlees, &

Weston, 2006, 2010). For example, Thelwell et al., (2010) examined the effects

of a PST intervention comprising self-talk, relaxation and imagery, on three

performance subcomponents (passing, first touch and tackling) during different

stages of competition. The results showed the intervention to be effective in

enhancing performance in the second half of the performance for all participants

in at least two of the performance subcomponents. Consequently, some

evidence suggesting that PST intervention affects performance in differing ways

throughout competition was highlighted.

Despite the steady growth of PST research applied to soccer, it is

important to point out that the majority of the studies have been primarily limited

to experimental methods (that examined the efficacy of PST on performance).

To date, relatively little is known about soccer players’ perspectives concerning

the PST process. This gap in research was also emphasized by Pain and

Harwood (2004) that reported the need to examine the soccer players’

knowledge and perspectives of applied PST interventions. Understanding the

soccer players’ perspectives on this issue will provide useful insight into the

current state of PST in soccer, as well as valuable information for practitioners

(i.e., sport psychologists and coaches). According to the soccer players’

attitudes toward PST intervention the practitioners can select the most effective

way to conduct this kind of intervention. Leffingwell, Durand-Bush, Wurzberger,

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and Cada (2005) highlighted the importance of being aware of an athletes’

openness to PST interventions in order to help practitioners decide the best

direction for intervention. In line with this, Bull (1991) suggested that athletes’

motivations, beliefs and behaviors regarding PST must be addressed in order to

increase the number of athletes who adhere to PST programs.

An important direction for PST evaluation pointed out by Vealey (1988)

was the utilization of qualitative methods as an alternative to the traditional

quantitative methods. The use of interviews, for example, provides the

researcher with more holistic and contextualized knowledge about the problem

and producing relevant information which is not always provided by other

assessment methods (Valles, 1999). As Vealey (1988) noted, “information such

as this can facilitate the development of salient and appropriate PST

approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332).

Given the above, the general purpose of the current study was to explore

the perspectives and experiences of elite Portuguese soccer players regarding

PST process. More specifically, we aimed to examine the players’ perspectives

about the importance assigned to PST, as well as their receptiveness and

personal experiences with PST interventions.

Method

Participants

Sixteen professional Portuguese elite soccer players participated in this

study. At the time of the interview all of them were playing for Portuguese

premier league teams that competed in UEFA champions or Europe League.

Six of the participants were also playing for the Portuguese national soccer

team, which were among the strongest in the world (ranked in the top ten on the

official FIFA list). The sample included two goalkeepers, four defenders, five

midfielders and five attackers. All the participants were male, ranging in age

from 23 to 34 years.

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Instrument

The data were collected from a semi-structured interview with open-

ended questions developed in accordance with the purposes of the current

study.

The interview guide consisted of three sections: (i) introduction, (ii) PST

questions (main body of the interview), and (iii) final considerations. Within the

introduction, the research explained the purpose of the study and the structure

of the interview. This section also aimed to establish rapport with the

participants. The questions of the second section explore the importance

assigned to psychological skills on soccer players performance (e.g., What is

your opinion about the importance of PST for soccer players?; Which

psychological skills do you considered most important for soccer players?) and

the perceptions and experience with PST intervention (e.g., Have you ever

received an PST intervention?; Are you receptive to this type of intervention?).

Finally, participants were invited to complete or add information to their

responses to the interview questions or to other conversation topics that they

considered relevant to the purposes to this study. Three pilot interviews with

three male non-professional soccer players were used to refine the interview

guide.

Procedures

The first author conducted all of the interviews face-to-face. This author

had previous experience as assistant coach in Portuguese premier league

soccer teams and was therefore familiar with the history, experiences, and

terminology used by participants. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) this

was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data collection. The

interviews were conducted in the clubs’ facilities (after and before the training

sessiona; n=10), in players’ homes (n=4), and at hotel rooms (n=2). Each

participant gave their consent to have the interview recorded and confidentiality

was assured. The interviews lasted 45 to 75 minutes.

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Data analysis

Soccer players’ interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed and content

analysed using the procedures recommended by Patton (2002) for inductive-

deductive content analysis. The process involves organizing raw data into

meaningful themes and categories that emerged from the quotations. In the

current study, the first author achieved this by clustering quotes around

underlying uniformities from which first-order subthemes then emerged.

Common second-order subthemes were then identified and the hierarchical

induction continued until it was no longer possible to create a new level of

thematic representation (Patton, 2002). The highest level of themes was

labelled as general dimensions. In order to control individual bias and ensure

verifiability of the findings, all the data were presented and discussed with

another author (trained in qualitative research) that acted as “devil’s advocate”

(Marshall & Rossman, 1995). The findings were analysed and questions were

raised about the researchers’ interpretations. After discussion, all the comments

were clarified, changes were made as appropriate, and a final consensus was

reached. Finally, the first author re-read again the interview transcripts while

comparing them and validating them against the first-order, second-order

subthemes and general dimensions, ensuring that research questions were

being answered and no relevant data had been inadvertently excluded or

irrelevant data included.

Results

The inductive-deductive analysis pointed out two general dimensions

emerging from 38 raw data themes mentioned by the elite soccer players. The

dimensions were abstracted from six second-order subthemes and these from

nine first-order subthemes. The general dimensions are represented in Figures

1-2.

Importance of PST for soccer players

This dimension concerned the participants’ perspectives about the

importance assigned to PST in soccer. Twenty-three raw data themes

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comprised this first dimension and three second-order subthemes were used to

define it (Figure 1).

The first second-order subtheme, importance of PST, enumerated the

reasons why participants considered PST important for soccer players. All the

participants were unanimous in recognizing the important role of PST,

specifically as one of the most important factors of performance and crucial for

elite soccer players. The next comment expressed this specific view:

In my opinion the training of psychological skills is crucial for any elite

soccer player. Evidently the physical, technical, and tactical preparation

is also relevant, but for me the psychological factor is undoubtedly the

one that makes the difference at the highest level.

With respect to the second-order subtheme, five of the soccer players

considered that PST has a positive impact on soccer performance. Two

participants also revealed that a lack of psychological preparation has a

negative impact on soccer players’ performance, decreasing the expected

outcome. The following quote clearly show this perspective:

If you are not well prepared psychologically you cannot have a good

performance, it is impossible. Even if you are a player of excellence, if

you are bad psychologically you will fail. At this level we can never fail

and consequently we always need to be well prepared psychologically.

The last second-order subtheme, enumerated the psychological skills

that participants considered most important for soccer players performance

such as concentration, self-confidence, motivation, stress management, and

emotions management. Also in this second-order subtheme, some participants

mentioned a range of psychological attributes (e.g., responsibility, spirit of

sacrifice). It should be noted, however that only three of the soccer players

mentioned the importance of some psychological techniques (e.g., self-talk,

goal setting).

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PST Interventions

Fifteen raw data themes were included in the second dimension, which

highlighted the participants’ perspectives and experiences regarding the PST

interventions. This dimension was comprised of three second-order subthemes:

personal experiences with PST intervention, receptiveness to PST intervention

and barriers to PST intervention (Figure 2).



General Dimension

• Very important (n=8)

•One of the multi-factors of performance (n=4)

•Crucial to elite soccer players (n=4)

•Permit get to the top (n=1)

•Helps stay at the top (n=1)

•Distinguish the best players (n=1)


Importance of PST

for soccer players

•Usually had a positive influence (n=1)

•Improve performance (n=1)

•Helps to achieve high level results (n=2)

•Permit beat better opponents (n=1)

Positive impact

(n=5)

Impact on Performance

(n=6)

•A lack of psychological preparation have a negative impact on performance (n=1)

• When I’m not psychological prepared all things go bad (n=1)

Negative impact (n=2)

•Concentration (n=7)

•Self-confidence (n=6)

•Motivation (n=3)

•Stress management (n=3)

•Emotions management (n=1)

Psychological

skills (n=11)

Curcial psychological

skills/ tecnhiques

(n=16)

•Responsibility (n=2)

•Spirit of sacrifice (n=1)

•Manage to success (n=1)

•Passion (n=1)

Psychological attributes

(n=5)

•Self-talk (n=2)

•Goal setting (n=1)

P. techniques (n=3)

Figure 1. Soccer players’ perspectives about the importance of PST


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Regarding the previous experiences with PST intervention the majority of

the participants had never experienced any kind of intervention. Four players

mentioned to having some previous experience with PST intervention, however

they considered it not appropriate or not systematic. One of these participants

explained that he had previous contact with a sport psychologist who applied

some psychological techniques to assist him. However, this participant

considered the intervention unhelpful because he only had access to this in the

pre-season. The following quote depict this perspective:



General Dimension

•Sporadic intervention (n=1)

•Not appropriate intervention (n=2)

•Application of some psychological techniques (n=1)

Contact (n=4)

Previous experience with PST

interventions (n=16)

PST interventions

•Never had psychological intervention (n=12)

• Never worked with SPs (n=2)

No contact

(n=12)

•Receptive to PST interventions (n=13)

Receptive (n=13)

Receptiveness to PST

interventions (n=16)

•Not receptive to PST interventions (n=3)

Not receptive (n=3)

•Lack of SPs available in soccer (n=7)

•Mentality / culture of soccer administers and coaches (n=4)

•Coaches’ lack of PST knowledge (n=4)

•Players’ lack of PST Knowledge (n=3)

•Lack of specific-sport knowledge by the SPs (n=3)

• Don’t have psychological weakness (n=1)

• Successful psychological characteristics (n=1)

•To old to change routines (n=1)

Barriers to PST

Interventions (n=16)

Figure 2. Soccer players’ perspectives and experiences regarding PST interventions

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In one of the several clubs that I played I had a PST intervention during

the pre-season. The psychologist gave me a personal interview and

some questionnaires to fill out. He also taught me some techniques to

reduce stress, anxiety and to maintain focus. However, we only had two

or three sessions in the pre-season. Honestly I think that this type of

intervention was not very effective.

When the soccer players were asked about their receptiveness to PST

interventions, 13 participants showed receptiveness to this type of intervention.

On the other hand, three participants were not receptive to PST interventions

and expressed some ideas that can be considered barriers to this intervention.

Two participants believed that they did not have psychological weakness.

Another participant mentioned that he is too old to change his routine. The next

quote summarizes this idea:

I’m not very receptive to this (PST intervention). I’m nearly finishing my

career and so I’m not very receptive to changing my old routines. I have

my own strategies that allow me to prepare psychologically for the

competition. I have used these strategies for a long time and I feel very

comfortable with them. Honestly I’m not receptive to this or other type of

psychological intervention because I do not need it … maybe when I

began my career, but not now.

Finally, the participants who are receptive to PST interventions also

identified some barriers to this kind of intervention in soccer. According to these

participants the lack of sport psychologists available in soccer clubs and

technical staff, the lack of PST knowledge of soccer players and coaches, and

the mentality of some soccer administrators and coaches were some of the

most significant barriers. Three soccer players also identified the lack of

specific-sport knowledge by the sport psychologists as a barrier to PST

interventions. For example, one soccer player said:

In my opinion the lack of specific soccer knowledge by the psychologists

is one of the most important reasons why they are not working in soccer.

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I think that the psychologists can only help us if they understand soccer.

It's like the physical trainer, if he does not understand anything about

soccer he can’t prepare us because the players need to be prepared to

play soccer and not only running. So for me this argument is also valid

for the psychologists.

Discussion

The purpose of the current study was to examine the PST perspectives

and experiences of players from elite Portuguese soccer teams. The sample

was unanimous in recognizing the important role of PST in soccer. This

perspective could be valuable because literature revealed that success in

professional sports requires not only physical and tactical preparation but also

PST (Cox & Yoo, 1995). Similarly, Gardner and Moore (2006) mentioned that

the systematic and purposeful application of PST can make an important

contribution in elite sport. In addition some of our participants stressed the idea

that PST had a positive impact on their performance, that is consistent with

several PST researches applied to soccer (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe-

Chandler et al., 2012; Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010).

When asked about the most crucial specific psychological skills for

soccer players’ performance, our sample pointed toward dominance of self-

confidence and concentration skills. This finding is not totally surprising because

both psychological skills are often addressed in sport psychology literature.

Several studies supported that the optimization of self-confidence and the ability

to concentrate are key psychological skills to successful performance in elite

sport (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Kitsantas & Zimmerman, 2002). At this

level it is important to note that both these skills were often elicited in soccer

media by some of the best soccer players in the world. For example, in a media

interview after an important game, Lionel Messi stated the following: “I’m very

confident. I think that the goals are linked with confidence. Now it seems that all

the balls get in and that makes it easier to score goals” (“Marca”, 2007, para.1).

In a similar pre-game media interview, Cristiano Ronaldo reported that “this is a

very important game for us and I will certainly be focusing and I will help the

team” (“Marca”, 2013, para.2). Despite the recognized importance of these

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skills, few studies investigated the specific strategies that soccer players used

to enhance the both skills (i.e. concentration and self-confidence). Thus, future

research can and should explore these issues.

According to Vealey (2007) it seems important to identify key

psychological skills that are related to the performance success to guide the

development of PST interventions. Therefore the set of psychological skills

highlighted in the current study can and should be considered as a relevant

indicator for the development of more effective and specific PST interventions

among elite soccer players. However, in order for this support to be as effective

and specific as possible, future research should explore the key psychological

skills according to the soccer players’ gender, age and position in the field (e.g.,

goalkeepers, defenders, midfielders and attackers).

Recent advances in the PST literature applied to soccer has seen an

increase in the number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence

of PST on soccer player’s performance (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe-

Chandler et al., 2012; Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010). However most of the

participants (n=12) revealed a complete lack of PST interventions during their

careers and even the four players who reported previous PST interventions

experiences did not considerate it as appropriate. Since the sport psychology

literature has supported that optimal athletes’ performance requires a

systematic, appropriate and effective PST intervention (Morris, Spittle, & Watt,

2005; Vealey, 2007), it seems to be important to increase the adherence of elite

soccer players to this type of intervention. If Portuguese elite soccer players

have more opportunities to engage in formal PST their performance may be

improved.

According to Leffingwell, Rider, and Williams (2001) athletes may

perceive potential gains and losses in pursuing PST and the latter may

adversely impact athletes’ motivations and behavior regarding a PST

intervention. Although some of the participants (n=3) expressed disinterest and

reluctance to PST interventions, most of them (n=13) showed interest and

receptiveness to PST interventions.

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Therefore we are faced with a paradox. If the majority of the elite soccer

players are receptive to PST interventions, why did most of them not have

access to such interventions during their careers?

Results of our study describe a variety of roadblocks to PST highlighted

by the twelve participants that showed receptiveness to PST interventions. A

lack of sport psychologists available in soccer clubs and technical staff was

cited as the most significant barrier among this group of participants. This

finding is not totally surprising because sport psychologists in Portuguese

professional soccer are the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004). In order

to increase and improve the quality of psychological services in soccer, it was

recommended that a higher number of sport psychologists should be

incorporated into the professional clubs. For Weinberg and Gould (2011) PST

should be planned, implemented, and supervised by a qualified sport

psychologist consultant. The inclusion of these experts in professional

Portuguese soccer may also serve to educate the soccer players and coaches

in the PST concepts and consequently to overcome other barriers elicited in this

study, specifically, the lack of PST knowledge of both practitioners (players and

coaches). However, some of the soccer coaches and administrators do not fully

accept the integration of these experts in soccer. According to some

participants the mentality / culture of soccer coaches’ administrators was

considered a barrier that sport psychologists face to entry in soccer. In line with

this, previous research showed that PST concepts are often not fully accepted

or understood by professional sports organizations (Ravizza, 1990). In this

sense, the investment in the psychological education of soccer coaches and

administrators on the benefits of psychological interventions can be an

important step in the changing of their “mentality / culture”. In order to increase

the awareness and application of sport psychology within professional clubs,

youth academies and national squads, the Football Association (FA) of England

has introduced its ‘Psychology for Football’ strategy. A range of courses aimed

at coaches, players and support staff has been developed to educate these

groups in the concepts of sport psychology and, importantly, to unite them with

practicing sport psychologists (see Pain & Harwood, 2004). Therefore, the FA of

135

England strategy can be seen as an example of good practice of sport

psychology that Portugal should follow.

Another barrier highlighted by some of the participants was the lack of

sport-specific knowledge on the part of the sport psychologists. According to

Pain and Harwood (2004) the sport-specific knowledge was essential for

working effectively with coaches and athletes. Therefore it is important that

sport psychologists increase their knowledge of soccer and focusing more on

soccer-specific psychological skills and strategies. This is a very important issue

because poor PST interventions experienced by soccer players and coaches

may itself favor erroneous preconceptions.

The participants (n=3) that expressed disinterest and reluctance to PST

interventions, pointed out several misconceptions about PST. Specifically, one

of the participants considered himself too old to benefit from a PST intervention.

According to several authors (see Burton & Raedeke, 2008; Weinberg & Gould,

2011), this argument integrates some of the myths that can negatively interfere

in the adherence of athletes to PST programs. Indeed, Asken (1991) stated that

PST interventions can benefit all the athletes and psychological concerns

cannot be neglected based on the athletes’ age. In order to overcome this

roadblock, Burton and Raedeke (2008) highlighted the importance of

introducing PST programs in the beginning of athletes’ sports careers to

enhance personal growth and performance. Other participants reported

satisfaction with their psychological performance and consequently they did not

require PST interventions. These participants believed that the PST

interventions were only for problems and weak players, and that strong players

would not benefit. Once more these perspectives are in line with the PST

misconceptions mentioned in several studies (Orlick & Partington, 1987; Pain &

Harwood, 2004). Therefore, it seems important to inform these players about

the nature of PST process. It is relevant to highlight that PST programs are

important not only for soccer players who admitted having psychological

weakness, but also for those who consider themselves having “strong” minds.

PST interventions can be seen as a preventive tool that will act before

psychological problems appear. In addition, it can work as an advantageous

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process to empower athletes already psychologically gifted, helping them to

achieve even better results and to perform consistently.

The previous misconceptions about PST pointed out by some of the

participants show the need for an educational and constructive perspective for

these players before a PST intervention. Weinberg and Gould (2011) presented

a three-phase approach for PST programs: (i) education phase, (ii) acquisition

phase, and (iii) practice phase. The first phase of the program is fully dedicated

to educating athletes on the importance of PST interventions and to raising

awareness of the role of psychological skills in sports.

Leffingwell et al., (2001) mentioned that when applied sport psychologists

approach a team they do not have clear notions about the athletes’

receptiveness to PST interventions. Therefore the previous finding can

represent a useful tool for the practitioners’ interventions with Portuguese elite

soccer players. Using the information pointed out in the current study,

practitioners can deduce that although the majority of the elite soccer players

may be interested in integrating PST programs to enhance their performance,

some of them are still reluctant with this type of intervention. Consequently

practitioners should outline an individualized intervention according to the

adherence level of each player. For example, for the players who are open and

receptive to a PST intervention, a more behavioural approach (i.e. application of

psychological strategies and techniques) should be conducted, while a more

cognitive and educational approach is advisable for the reluctant players.

Conclusion

The present study provided relevant information regarding the level of

development of PST among elite Portuguese soccer players. The findings

highlight the need to increase the number of opportunities for elite Portuguese

soccer players to receive PST interventions. In a professional sport, where

there is not a single game or even a single move in which the psychological

factors are used to interpret the games results or the players performance it

seems necessary to provide more psychological services and professional help

to support and engage elite Portuguese soccer players in PST programs. The

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practical recommendations pointed out in this study should help to overcome

the PST barriers and misconceptions that still exist in the Portuguese premier

league.

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Paper VI

Elite Portuguese soccer players use of psychological techniques:

Where, when and why 6

____________________

6 Accepted for publication at the Journal of Human Sport and Exercise: vol.8, nº3,

September 2013

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Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to examine the use whether, where, when

and why soccer players used self-talk, imagery, goal setting, and relaxation.

Semi-structure, in-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 elite

soccer players from Portuguese premier league soccer teams that played

regularly in UEFA champions and Europe leagues. Results demonstrated that

participants employed self-talk, goal-setting, and imagery with several purposes

in their soccer routines. On the other hand, participants highlighted a lack of use

of relaxation. In addition, results showed that the use of psychological

techniques was lower in training than competition setting. Implications of the

results are discussed and future research and practical recommendations are

suggested.

Key-words: soccer players, self-talk, goal-setting, imagery, relaxation

.

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Introduction

Psychological skills training (PST) entails a “systematic and consistent

practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing

performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical

activity self-satisfaction” (Weinberg & Gould, 2011, p. 248). In PST it seems

useful to differentiate between skills, or target behaviors (e.g. self-confidence,

attention focus, motivation), and methods (e.g., self-talk, imagery, goal-setting,

relaxation), which are the vehicles used to attain the target behaviors (Vealey,

1988, 2007).

We focus on the present study on the psychological techniques of

imagery, self-talk, goal setting, and relaxation. Although we acknowledge the

alternative psychological techniques used in sport performance, we selected the

four skills mentioned previously, because of their frequent employment in the

psychological skill literature. According to several authors (Gould, Murphy,

Tammen, & May, 1991; Sullivan & Nashman, 1998; Vealey, 1988, 2007), these

specific techniques have been the focus of most of the PST research. They

have received widespread attention in both single-skill (e.g., Evans, Jones, &

Mullen, 2004; Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004) and multiple-skill

(e.g., Hanton & Jones, 1999; Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010)

applied studies.

In this context, it also should be noted that the use of qualitative methods

as an alternative to the traditional quantitative methods was highlighted as an

important direction for PST evaluation (Vealey, 1988). For this author,

“information such as this can facilitate the development of salient and

appropriate PST approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332).

Therefore it was not surprising that PST literature has seen an increase in the

number of descriptive and qualitative studies examining the use of each

aforementioned psychological technique from an athlete perspective.

One of the most insightful imagery studies was conducted by Munroe-

Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, and Weinberg (2000), who examined the four W’s of

imagery used by athletes. Results from this study reports that although athletes

used imagery before, during and after both training and competition, they used

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it more prior to competition than at any other time. In addition athletes also

report using imagery outside of these two environments, including at work,

school and home (Hall, Rodgers, & Barr, 1990; Rodgers, Hall, & Buckolz, 1991;

Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994), and during sport-injury rehabilitation (Sordoni,

Hall, & Forwell, 2000). With regard to the “Why” of imagery use, Paivio (1985)

proposed that imagery can be used for both cognitive and motivational

purposes. Similarly, Munroe-Chandler et al., (2000) found that imagery can be

used for both cognitive (specific, general) and motivational (specific, general

arousal, general mastery). Also in this context, Salmon et al., (1994), reported

athletes using imagery more for its motivation function than its cognitive

function.

Like imagery, self-talk used by athletes has also received considerable

research attention. Based on recent sport specific self-talk findings (e.g., Hardy,

Gammage, & Hall, 2001; Theodorakis, Weinberg, Natsis, Douma, & Kazakas,

2000), self- talk can be better thought of as a multidimensional phenomenon

concerned with athletes’ verbalizations that are addressed to themselves, which

can serve both instructional and motivational functions. In a descriptive study of

self-talk use in sport, Hardy et al., (2001) (following the approach used by

Munroe-Chandler et al., 2000) examined the “4 W’s” of self-talk used by

athletes. Athletes of this study reported the use of self-talk before, during and

after training and competition. Similar to the findings reported by Munroe-

Chandler et al. (2000), Hardy and colleagues (2001) found that self-talk serves

two main functions for the athlete: cognitive (specific, general) and motivational

(mastery, arousal, drive).

The third psychological skill briefly reviewed here is goal setting.

Although athletes set goals in both training and competition, they set more

competition goals than practice goals (Burton, Weinberg, Yukelson, & Weigand,

1998; Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 2000). According Munroe-

Chandler, Hall, and Weinberg (2004) athletes reported slightly more goals for

training than competition. Gould (2006) reported that goal setting to be

beneficial for changing important psychological states such as anxiety,

motivation, and confidence. Munroe-Chandler et al., (2004) found that athletes

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set goals for several purposes that include: skills improvement and execution,

strategies of game improvement and execution, controlling arousal, being

mentally tough, being focused, staying positive, and increasing self-confidence.

The final psychological technique briefly reviewed here is relaxation. This

specific technique has received most of its attention via intervention-based

studies alone (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008a). Relaxation

techniques have been used in sport primarily to enhance recovery from training

and competition, manage anxiety, and improve performance (Weinberg &

Comar, 1994). Additionally, this technique has been suggested to increase

concentration, enhance motor skills, and improve ability to handle arousal and

stress (Layman, 1978). However it should be noted that much of the work has

focussed on the reduction of a competitive anxiety and the mechanisms to

increase the directional perceptions of the anxiety response (Maynard,

Hemmings, & Evans, 1995). Several techniques are available and can be

categorized as physical or somatic relaxation strategies and cognitive relaxation

strategies (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). It has been suggested that different

relaxation techniques may induce different relaxation responses. For example

Lehrer’s review (1996) concluded that methods with predominantly cognitive

components tend to produce specific cognitive effects (e.g., decreases in

amount of worrying, self-assessment of anxiety or pain, inability to concentrate

mentally, etc.) and methods with predominant somatic components tend to

produce greater muscular effects as measured by surface EMG (Lehrer &

Woolfolk, 1993).

The athletes’ use of the four key psychological techniques is widely

reported in the PST literature, however it should be noted that few or no studies

focus on sport-specific samples. According to several authors psychological

techniques use could be dependent upon the type of sport (Hardy, Hall, &

Hardy, 2005; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Simms, & Weinberg, 1998). For example,

individual sport athletes reported greater use of self-talk, as well as the

functions of self-talk, than their team sport counterparts, i.e. team sport athletes

(Hardy et al., 2005, study 1). To achieve a better understanding of

psychological techniques it is important to execute research in a diverse group

145

of sports (Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002).Therefore, there seems a need to

examine specific-sport samples in order to facility the development of more

specific psychological interventions. For that reason, the present study has

focused on Portuguese elite soccer players. This specific-sample was chosen

due to their high popularity in Europe, but also because of the complete lack of

qualitative studies that examined the issues of where, when and why these

practitioners used psychological techniques. Understanding the soccer players’

perspectives on the aforementioned issues will certainly provide useful

information for the practitioners (i.e., sport psychologists and coaches)

developing more specific and effective PST interventions.

Therefore the purpose of the present study was to conduct an

exploratory investigation to identify and describe where, when and why (for

what purposes) elite Portuguese soccer players use the skills of imagery, self-

talk, goal setting and relaxation. Even before these questions are asked, we

must consider whether or not they are even using each of these psychological

techniques. Due to the in-depth nature of the questions being asked, as well as,

the recommendations of experts in this field (Vealey, 1988) a qualitative

approach was deemed appropriate.

Method

Participants

The sample was comprised of 16 male Portuguese elite soccer players

ranged in age from 23 to 34 years old. At the time of the interview all of the

participants played in Portuguese first league teams that competed in the UEFA

Europe league or UEFA champions league. Some of them (n=6) were also

playing for the Portuguese national soccer team, which were among the

strongest in the world (ranked in top ten on the official FIFA list). The sample

represented all of the soccer field positions and included two goalkeepers, four

defenders, four midfielders and five attackers. All participants volunteered their

consent to participate in the study.

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Interview guide

The data were collected from a semi-structured interview with open-

ended questions developed in accordance with the purposes of the current

study. The interview guide used in the present study was composed by six

sections. The first section contained demographic information and other

introductory comments (about the purpose of the research and information

about the structure of the interview). The second until the fifth section followed

similar procedures but were focused on self-talk, imagery, goal-setting and

relaxation respectively. In each of these sections participants received a

definition of the psychological technique in consideration. After this, participants

were asked to indicate if they use the psychological technique in soccer. If they

responded positively, they are asked about the questions relating to where,

when, and why they use it in both training and competition setting (e.g., “When,

in a training situation, do you use self-talk?”; ”What are some of the reasons you

use imagery in training?”). The questions relating to the functions (i.e. why)

followed Paivio’s (1985) framework, which includes both cognitive and

motivational functions. The questions emanating from the framework provided

some direction for the participants (e.g., “Could you describe your use of goal

setting for working on a specific skill?”; “Could you describe your use of self-talk

to execute strategies of play?”). The final section provided the participants with

the opportunity to ask questions about the interview experience and to discuss

any issues that may have been omitted. Three pilot interviews were conducted

with three non-professional soccer players, and minor amendments to the

questions were made to the appropriateness of the probe and elaboration

questions.

Procedures

The interviews were conducted by the first author of the present

investigation that had previous experience as assistant coach in Portuguese

premier league soccer teams and was therefore familiar with the history,

experiences, and terminology used by participants. According to Lincoln and

Guba (1985) this was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data

147

collection. The interviews were taped recorded and ranged in duration from 45

to 75 minutes and was conducted face to face in an environment comfortable

for the participants. Ten of the 16 interviews took place in the clubs’ facilities

before or after a training session. Of the remaining interviews, four were

conducted at the athlete’s home, and two in hotel rooms.

Data analysis

The data were analysed using hierarchical content data analysis

procedures recommended by Patton (2002). The first author read and reread

each of the interview transcripts to become completely familiar with the content

of each interview. Next, raw data themes were identified from quotes

characterizing each participant’s responses within each area of the interview.

Data were then appropriately coded, compared and organized into categories

using both inductive and deductive content analysis. Deductive analysis

ensured that answers discussing specific content were related to the question

being asked. Then, using a hierarchical induction, first, second and third-order

subtheme emerged through clustering raw data around underlying uniformities.

The process continued until general dimensions emerged (that represents level

with higher abstraction). Finally, in order to control individual bias and ensure

verifiability of the findings, all the data were presented and discussed with

another author to act as “devil advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). Any

comments, concerns, or queries raised by this author regarding the analysis

were then acknowledged, clarified, or changed as appropriate by the first

author. To provide an ultimate validity check, the first author reread all the

transcripts and verified that all themes and dimensions were represented

respectively and in accordance with the question being asked. The first author

chose segments of text (i.e. verbatim quotes from participants) to represent the

power of qualitative data to illustrate the themes (Patton, 2002).

Results

The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions (self-

talk, goal-setting, imagery and relaxation) emerging from 120 raw data themes

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mentioned by the elite soccer players. The dimensions were abstracted from

eight third order subthemes, these from 18 second order-subthemes and these

form 44 first order-subthemes represented in figures 1-4.

Self-talk

Self-talk dimension shows the participants’ perspectives about their used

of self-talk (Figure 1). The interviews revealed that the 16 players of the present

study reported using self-talk in their soccer career. Furthermore ten of the

participants mentioned a systematic use of this technique in both training and

competition. On the other hand, six of the participants revealed that only

employing self-talk in competition.

With respect to the time frame, the majority of the sample stated using

this technique more during the competition than any other time frame. Four

participants highlighted the use of self-talk during half-time, whereas 15

participants employed it more frequently during the game. The following

quotation is quite representative of this last perspective:

I usually use self-talk during the game… I also use it in other moments,

but during the competition is undoubtedly when I use it more often.

During the 90 minutes of the game I’m constantly giving suggestions and

directions to myself, like I was coaching myself.

When participants were asked about the purposes for using self-talk

three second order-subthemes emerged: technical-tactical function (cognitive),

psychological function (motivational) and “extra” function.

Regarding the cognitive function of self-talk, participants mentioned using

self-talk for two main reasons: technical-tactical improvement and technical-

tactical execution. The first related to correct technical skills and learning new

tactical skills. The second and most frequently mentioned cognitive function,

related to the proper execution of technical and tactical skills in order to perform

as well as possible. This is well illustrated in the following soccer player’s quote:

“I use self-talk to execute defensive movements. Is a strategy that I use to

perform my defensive tasks as accurately as possible”.

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Additionally, the participants reported employing self-talk to enhance (or

optimize) several psychological skills, such as concentration, motivation and

self-confidence. An example of the former includes: “Usually I use it (self-talk) to

keep me focused and to not deviate from what I have to do”. The participants

also used self-talk to help them psych up for games, to overcome difficulties

and to control stress and anxiety levels. This latter reason is outlined in the

following quotation: “When things aren’t going well during the game I talk to

myself in order to keep calm and to reduce my anxiety levels”.

Finally, two soccer players raised an interesting purpose regarding the

use of self-talk. One of these players mentioned using this technique after the

game in order to elaborate their speech on flash-interview, as illustrated in the

following quote: “At the end of the game, before I go to the flash interview I used

the self-talk to prepare my speech at the flash interview”.

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Raw Data Themes




General Dim.

• Competition (n=16) • Training (n=10) • In dressing room (n=5) • On the pitch (n=1)



Locations and time frames (where

and when)

Se

lf-talk

(n=

16)

• At home (n=1) • In the gym (n=1) • In the car (n=1) • Hotel room (n=1) • Team bus (n=1)

Non soccer

related venues (n=5)


Training (n=10)

Time frames (when) (n=16)

• Before the game (n=10) • In the warm up (n=3) • During the game (n=15) • At half-time (n=2) • After competition (n=4)

Competition

(n=16)

• Improve and strengthen weaker skills (n=1) • Correct technical errors (n=2) • To learn offensive and defensive movements (n=1)

Technical- tacical skills improvement

(n=3)

Technical-

tactical function

(cognitive n=9)

Functions of self-talk

(why)

• Perform with the proper technique(n=6) • To properly execute a technical skill (n=2) • Execute offensive movements (n=1) • Execute free kicks (n=1) • To play well in the def. process (n=1)

Technical-

tactical skills execution

(n=7)

• To remain focused (n=5) • Increase concentration levels (n=3) • To stay focused in tactical tasks (n=1)

Enhance concentra.

(n=6)

Psychologi-cal

function (motivational

n=16)

• Maintain motivation levels (n=1) • Increase self-motivation (n=3)

Enhance motiva.(n=3)

• Overcoming difficult situations (n=3) • To overcome hard physical training sessions (n=2) • To help through painful circumstances (n=1) • Overcome injury rehabilitation process (n=1)


(n=4)

• Reduce anxiety levels (n=3) • Reduce stress (n=2) • To optimize anxiety levels (n=1) • Control emotions (n=2)

Stress managment

(n=6)

• Increase self-confidence (n=2) • Maintain self-confidence (n=1) • Regulate self-confidence levels (n=1)

Enh. self-confidence

(n=3)

• To keep myself agitated for the game (n=2)

Psyched up (n=2)

• Optimize speech in flash interview (n=1) • To make a good speech in the media (n=1)

Speech in media (n=2)

“Extra” function

(n=2)

Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them

151

Goal-setting

When the soccer players were asked to discuss the goals that they set

goals for themselves, 13 participants pointed out its use (Figure 2).

Nevertheless, only five of these participants expressed setting goals in both

training and competition locations. Data also showed that the majority of the

participants setting goals before the game.

Participants highlighted several purposes for employing goal setting.

Particularly, they used this technique to improve and execute technical and

tactical skills. It should be noted, that as in the case of self-talk the participants

expressed using it slightly more for the execution than for improvement. In

addition, the soccer players reported using goal-setting to regulate their

psychological state. For example, they mentioned setting goals to enhance

motivation, concentration and self-confidence, to reduce stress and anxiety and

to cope with difficulties. The purpose of using goal setting for adverse situations

in competition is summarizing in the following quotation:

I set goals to overcome obstacles and difficulties in the competition. For

example, when I have a minor injury during a game I remember my

personal goals and it gives me strength to overcome the pain and keep

playing with a high performance, because at this level we always need

perform our best.

In addition to the technical-tactical and psychological goal-setting

functions, two soccer players highlighted the use of this specific technique in

order to help them achieve personal success.

152

Raw Data Themes




General Dim.

• Competition (n=13)

• Training (n=5)

• In dressing room (n=3)




and when)

Go

al-s

ettin

g (n

=13

)

• At home (n=1)

• In the car (n=1)

Non soccer related venues

(n=2)

• Before practice (n=4)

• During practice (n=1)

• After practice (n=2)

Training (n=5)


• Before the game (n=11)

• During the game (n=3)

• After competition (n=5)

Competition (n=13)

• To improve technical skills (n=1)

• To improve tactical movements (n=1)


(n=2)

Technical-

tactical function

(cognitive n=5)

Functions of goal-setting (why)

• Execute techniques as well as possible (n=2)

• To perform with proper technique (n=1)

• To execute strategies more effectively (n=1)

Technical-


(n=4)

• Focus on specific tasks (n=3)

• To stay focused (n=2)

Enhance concentra.

(n=5)

Psychologi-cal function

(motivational n=13)

• To maintain motivation levels (n=3)

• Increase self-motivation (n=2)

Enhance motiv.(n=5)

• Overcoming difficult situations (n=1)

• To overcome better opponents (n=1)

• To overcome injury rehabilitation process (n=1)


(n=3)

• Reduce anxiety levels (n=2)

• Reduce stress (n=2)

• To optimize anxiety levels (n=1)

Stress managment

(n=5)

• Increase self-confidence (n=2)

• Maintain self-confidence (n=1)

• To feel able (n=1)


(n=3)

• To get high levels of adrenaline (n=2) Psyched up (n=1)

• Achieve personal success (n=1)

• Hired by better teams (n=1)

Personal success

(n=2)

Achieve success

(n=2)

Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the goal-setting general dimension

153

Imagery

Thirty raw data themes were included in this dimension, which is related

to the players’ perspectives regarding their use of imagery (Figure 3). Results

showed that eleven of the participants expressed employing imagery in their

soccer routines. However, it was evident that only six of these participants

reported a systematic use of this psychological technique in both training and

competition.

As with the previous psychological technique (goal-setting), the majority

of the sample employed imagery more before the competition than any other

time frame. In this context, a participant expressed their used during the warm

up for the game, as is well illustrated in the following goalkeeper’s quotation:

“During the warm up period I usually visualize a set of specific game

situations…so before the game I use the imagery to prepare myself for a set of

possible situations that I can come across during the game”.

Participants of the current study pointed out several reasons for

employing imagery. Although imagery was employed by some participants for

the improvement and execution of technical and tactical skills, they used it more

with the latter than for the former purpose. For example, a soccer player

reported using imagery to help execute direct and indirect free kicks:

When I go to score a penalty or a free kick in a game I visualize how I

will score it. I imagine how I will put the foot on the ball, as I tilt the foot,

where I will put the ball, i.e. I visualize a set of technical content in order

to be succeeded.

Imagery was also used by the participants to maintain and increase

focus, motivation and self-confidence. With respect to this last purpose, one

soccer player said: “I use the imagery in competition to increase my self-

confidence, for example I imagine myself making a set of good dribbles and

greatest goals and this give me confidence for the game”.

Additionally, some coaches employed this specific technique to

overcome difficult situations and to optimize stress and anxiety levels. The next

sentence expresses this last perspective:

154

Normally I use internal images to control my stress and anxiety levels

before the games. I usually imagine things that make me feel good, that

give me comfort and this helps me to deal with the stress and anxiety.

Finally, one of the players mentioned using imagery to perform well in the

flash interview: “In the minutes prior to the flash interview I imagine my

performance in front of the cameras. Is a strategy that I used to look good

during the interview”.

155

Raw Data Themes




General Dim.


• Training (n=5)

• In dressing room (n=1)

• On the pitch (n=1)




and when)

Ima

gery

(n=

11)

• At home (n=1)

• Hotel room (n=1)

• Team bus (n=1)

Non soccer related

venues (n=5)

• Before practice (n=3)

• During practice (n=4)

• After practice (n=3)

Training (n=10)


• Before the game (n=8)

• In the warm up (n=2)

• During the game (n=5)

• At half-time (n=2)

• After competition (n=3)

Competition

(n=16)

• Improve and strengthen weaker skills (n=1)

• Make corrections on technique (n=1)

• To assimilate new offensive and defensive movements (n=1)


(n=3)

Technical-

tactical function

cognitive) n=7)

Functions of

imagery (why)

• Properly execute a technical skill (n=4)

• Execute defensive and offensive movements (n=1)

• To execute free kicks and penalty kicks (n=1)

• To selected the best strategy (n=1)

Technical-


(n=5)

• To remain focused (n=2)

• Increase concentration levels (n=1)

• To stay focused in tactical tasks (n=1)

Enhance concentra.

(n=4)


(motivational n=9)

• Increase motivation (n=2) Enhance motiv.(n=2)

• Overcoming difficult situations (n=2)

Cope with diffic. (n=2)



• To optimize anxiety levels (n=1)

• Control emotions (n=1)

Stress managment

(n=5)

• Increase self-confidence (n=2)

• Maintain self-confidence (n=1)


(n=3)

• To keep myself frenetic (n=1)

• To give power to myself (n=1)2

Psyched up (n=2)

• To perform well in flash interview (n=1) Perform on media (n=1)

“Extra” function

(n=1)

Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of the imagery general dimension

156

Relaxation

Relaxation was the least employed technique with only three participants

reported its use (Figure 4). The soccer players mentioned employing relaxation

only before the competition. A marked reduction was seen in the number of

purposes relating to the use of relaxation compared to the previous three

psychological techniques (i.e. self-talk, goal-setting and imagery). In fact,

relaxation was only used by the participants to enhance concentration skills and

to reduce stress and anxiety. For example one player stated: “I use some

relaxation techniques to reduce the stress and anxiety levels. For example

before the game I have a routine of listening to calm music and controlling my

breathing and this conveys serenity”.

Raw Data Themes




General Dim.


• Dressing room (n=1)




and when)

Re

lax

atio

n (n

=3

)

• Gym (n=1)

• Team bus (n=1)

Non soccer related

venues (n=2)

• Before competition (n=3)

Competition (n=3)


• Increase concentration levels (n=1)

Enhance Concentra.

(n=1)


(motivational n=3)

Functions of

relaxation (why)



Stress managment

(n=3)

Figure 4 – Hierarchical structure of the relaxation general dimension

Discussion

The purpose of the current study was to explore whether, where, when

and why Portuguese elite soccer players used the techniques of imagery, self-

talk, goal setting, and relaxation. Globally, the majority of the participants

mentioned employing self-talk, imagery, and goal-setting in their soccer

routines. This can be considered an encouraging finding because PST literature

157

has shown a positive influence of these techniques on soccer players’

performance (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne,

Murphy, & Hall, 2012; Thelwell, et al., 2006, 2010). By contrast, participants

highlighted a lack of use of relaxation techniques and this can be considered a

cause of concern.

Consistent with previous studies in sport (Barr & Hall, 1992; Hall et al.,

1990; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999), elite soccer players mentioned a

greater use of psychological techniques in competition setting when compared

to the training setting. This finding seems to suggest that soccer players

consider competition as more important than training and consequently reserve

psychological techniques use for that setting. It is also possible that they believe

that psychological techniques can only help them when they are competing.

The lower use of psychological techniques in training setting pointed out by

participants may raise some concerns because it compromises the

implementation of an effective and systematic PST program. This highlights the

need for sport psychologists to place a greater emphasis on quality practice

when working with elite soccer players. Their intervention should not only

stimulate the use of psychological techniques in training but also elucidate

soccer players about the benefits of their use in this environment.

According to Frey, Laguna, and Ravizza (2003) an athlete’s attitude

toward psychological technique use is partially dependent on the coach’s view

of PST. For these same authors, “if a coach is consistently emphasizing the

importance of competition over practice, the athlete may not realize the

relationship between the two environments, or that the quality of practice has an

effect on his or her performance in competition” (p. 123). Therefore sport

psychologists should inform soccer coaches about the relationship between

psychological techniques use in training and success in competition. The coach

is the manager of the team and therefore has great influence on the

psychological development of their athletes and teams. Furthermore, they

spend more time with players than the sport psychologist and consequently

they often have more opportunities to remind the players about using

psychological techniques in training setting.

158

Results of the present study also showed that participants used goal-

setting and imagery just prior to competing than any other time frame. This

finding can be explained by how crucial the time prior to competing is for

performance preparation. In contrast to these psychological techniques,

participants reported using self-talk more extensively during the competition. A

possible reason for these differences may have been because self-talk requires

less time and effort to utilize than the others three psychological skills.

According to Hardy et al., (2005) self-talk is a psychological skill that may

inherently lend itself to use in time-restricted situations such as those found

during training and competition.

With respect to the purposes that soccer employed psychological

techniques, our findings highlighted two main functions, cognitive and

motivational, that are consistent with the imagery and self-talk functions

identified by Munroe-Chandler et al., (2000) and Hardy et al., (2001). Regarding

to the cognitive function, soccer players reported using self-talk, imagery and

goal setting primarily for technical and tactical execution than technical and

tactical improvement. Our sample was exclusively composed of elite soccer

players that competed at the highest level. Therefore it was not surprising that

they would be more concerned with properly executing technical and tactical

skills than further improvement. This finding may also be connected with the

fact that the players reported using the psychological techniques more in

competition than in a training environment. In this context, Burton, Naylor, and

Holliday (2001) proposed that enhanced learning and development are usually

the primary focus in practice situations, while performing optimally or

outperforming one’s opponent is the main focus in competitive situations.

The soccer players also reported the use of the motivational function of

self-talk, goal-setting and imagery. In all of the psychological techniques the

motivational function was mentioned far more frequently than the cognitive

ones. This finding highlighted the importance that the psychological preparation

(motivational function) assumes for the Portuguese elite soccer players. In line

with this Fonseca (1997) mentioned that due to the similarity of technical,

physical and tactical skills of elite players from professional Portuguese soccer

159

clubs, the psychological preparation assumes a high relevance in the

achievement of soccer outcomes.

While the soccer players indicated using the three aforementioned

psychological techniques to optimize several psychological skills, it should be

noted that the majority of them used it to regulate their anxiety levels. The social

economic framework that involves professional soccer exposes the elite players

to high psychological pressure, and therefore it is not surprising that they used

psychological techniques with this specific purpose (i.e. regulate their anxiety

levels). Moreover, this finding may be again linked with the greater use of

psychological techniques in the competition setting stressed by the participants.

Finally, results of this study highlighted a marked reduction in the number

of participants who reported employing relaxation. This finding is not surprising

because most athletes have never been taught the basic requisites of this

technique or simply do not know how to relax on command (Burton & Raedeke,

2008). Future research should be conducted to determine if relaxation was used

less often because Portuguese elite soccer players do not have the in depth

knowledge of this psychological technique. If so, the practitioners (sport

psychologists and coaches) assume an important role to teach and raise

awareness of the elite soccer players for the importance of relaxation strategies

and how to develop them. It would be useful to explain to them that relaxation

can be used in both training and competition settings and with different

purposes (Hanton, Thomas, & Mellalieu, 2009). To be effective, practitioners

have to teach soccer players to develop relaxation skills that work quickly during

training and competition (Burton & Raedeke, 2008).

An interest finding revealed in the present study was the similarity

between the functions (purposes) of self-talk, imagery, and goal setting.

Similarly, PST literature showed that self-talk and imagery were used by

athletes for many of the same reasons (Hardy et al., 2001; Munroe-Chandler et

al., 2000). Based on this assumption, Hardy et al., (2001) suggested that the

use of these both techniques in combination would seem to be a logical

approach. Therefore encouraging elite soccer players to use self-talk, imagery,

and goal setting in combination would also seem to be a logical approach. At

160

this level it is also important not to forget the relaxation technique because

despite neglect by our participants, PST literature has seen an increase in the

number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence of relaxation

on soccer players performance (Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010).

Although we have presented separately the four psychological

techniques analysed in the current study, it would be advantageous to integrate

them within a single and systematic PST program. With respect to future

research, the efficacy of the combined used of self-talk, imagery, goal setting

and relaxation in elite soccer players performance should be investigated to

confirm the previous suggestions.

Conclusion

Globally this study demonstrated that Portuguese elite soccer players

employing self-talk, goal-setting, and imagery in their sport routines. On the

other hand, they highlighted a lack of use of relaxation technique. In addition,

results of the current study showed that the psychological techniques used were

lower in training than in competition setting.

The current study emphasises the need to elucidate Portuguese elite

soccer players of the importance and benefits of a regular and systematic use

of psychological techniques. Sport psychologists should help soccer players to

use the various psychological techniques, as well as, how to integrate them into

training and competition environments. Furthermore, it is also important that

those responsible for the soccer players’ preparation (e.g., head coaches,

assistant coaches) should understand the benefits of PST because it is these

practitioners who are in the best position to encourage players to use

psychological techniques in both training and competition settings.

161

General discussion and conclusions

____________________

163

General discussion and conclusions

The main purpose of the present dissertation was to examine the views

(perspectives) of elite soccer coaches and players regarding the current state

and use of PST in Portuguese professional soccer.

Since the results and conclusions of each paper have been previously

documented in the present dissertation, only a summary of the main findings

and a brief critical reflection are provided here.

In general, the main findings of this dissertation showed that the

Portuguese soccer reality seems to be somehow paradoxal. Although the

majority of the participants (elite soccer coaches and players) acknowledged

the importance of PST in soccer, they mentioned they didn’t use PST programs

systematically. Indeed, there seems to be a high discrepancy between the

coaches and players’ opinions and what it is actually implemented. However, at

this level, it should be remembered that our dissertation reflected the soccer

coaches and players’ perspectives and opinions and not necessarily their actual

behaviors.

Several potential explanations for this reality have been presented in the

current dissertation and included, the scarce presence of sport psychologists in

the Portuguese soccer framework (paper II and V), the lack of PST information

available (paper II), as well as the lack of PST knowledge by the coaches

(paper II and V), and the players (paper V). At this level it may be argued that

the UEFA soccer coaching courses promoted by Portuguese soccer Federation

are very far from answering to these concerns which can be proved by the few

number of hours attributed to the sport psychological discipline, as well as by

the lack quality of contents (paper II).

It should be noted, however, that we do not intend to underestimate the

knowledge of the prestigious coaches and players that participated in this

dissertation. On the contrary, we consider that the innumerous titles (national

and international) and successes (individual and collective), that most of them

have accomplished speak for themselves. Only practitioners with a profound

knowledge of the modality and increased skills of managing psychological

164

factors could reach their detained recognition. In fact, despite the scarce contact

with sport psychologists many of the participants referred the use of some of the

most relevant psychological techniques mentioned across PST literature, such

as self-talk, imagery and goal setting (paper III, IV and VI) (even this utilization

was mainly intuitive, non-conscious and non-systematic). Thus, coaches and

players seem to detain a set of basic knowledge associated with sports

psychology and that certainly allows them to better perform their functions.

However, to our perspective, that is not the same as to say that they are

prepared to apply a PST program in an effective and systematic way. This

opinion is shared by the majority of participants in this dissertation that

unanimously recognize for their own diminished capacity to implement a PST

program (paper II).

Given the above, several practical implications and recommendations

emerged from the global findings of the current dissertation. First, there is a

clearly and urgent need to increase the awareness and application of PST

programs within professional Portuguese soccer clubs. Second, the Portuguese

Soccer Federation, should reformulate their coaching courses (e.g., enhancing

the contents and increasing the number of hours allocated to sport psychology

module) in order to better educate soccer coaches in the concepts of sport

psychology (e.g., elucidating them about all of the positive benefits of the PST

programs).

We believe that ideally, besides improving their repertoire of

psychological intervention skills, Portuguese players and coaches should be

able to count with the collaboration of expert on this matter since that this

complementary work would be a good strategy to maximize their professional

efficacy. In this sense, it would be important to have a sport psychologist

available in soccer clubs (or in the technical staffs), supporting coaches and

players’ actions, in a consistent and systematic way, both in training and in

competition settings. However, we believe that this sport psychologist should

not only to have a profound knowledge on its domain of expertise but also to

have a general knowledge about the specific modality that he is working on. We

recall that in the present dissertation, several coaches and players have

165

highlighted the lack of specific knowledge about the modality as one of the main

obstacles for the inclusion of sport psychologists in professional soccer (paper II

and V). This position is inclusively shared by some of the most rewarded

international coaches. For instance, Fábio Capello and Camacho (cit. in

Fonseca, 2004) consider that it is crucial for the soccer sports psychologist to

be deeply familiar with soccer, to have been previously involved in sports and to

be ready to understand the problems associated with this activity. If this does

not happen, their intervention might result more negative than positive. Given

the above, it seems consensual that ideally sport psychologists should master

soccer’s general knowledge (tactical, technical and physical aspects) allowing

him to respond adequately to the demands of this specific context.

Therefore, we believe that besides their academic courses, sports

psychologists that work (or intend to work) in the context of soccer, should

detain complementary education within this specific modality (e.g., soccer

coaching training). Furthermore, we believe that an eventual mingling among

coaches, players (that intend to pursue a coach career), and psychologists

during coaching training courses could help demystify some issues related with

psychological intervention and consequently create more opportunities for their

integration in soccer. Moreover, psychologists may also use the course breaks

to interact with coaches and players and highlight the benefits of psychological

intervention as well as the role of the psychologist throughout the process.

In addition, the findings of the current dissertation also put in evidence

several soccer-specific issues. For instance concentration, self-confidence and

team cohesion were considered valuable skills for soccer players and teams

(paper II and V), motivation and emotional self-control were considered crucial

psychological skills for soccer coaches (paper II), and self-talk was the

psychological technique more employed by both groups of participants (paper

IV and VI). Although these results constitute relevant indicators for future

research and psychological interventions with both coaches and players, we

should refer that the aforementioned variables do not always assume the same

amount of importance. Every single player, team and coach is characterized by

166

their specificities and these singularities should be considered at the definition

of any psychological intervention plan.

In sum, we believe that PST should be an integrant part of the daily

training of Portuguese soccer players, teams and even coaches. The efficacy of

PST will always depend, to some point, to the level of collaboration and support

between psychologists, coaches and/or players as well as on the capacity to

adjust the program to the specific individual and collective needs (of a given

coach, player or team), and on the time that is left available for its

implementation. Therefore, it seems necessary to introduce the concept of

psychological periodization since players and teams needs considering each

psychological variable are different not only from each other but also throughout

the season. However, in our opinion the psychological periodization should not

appear without a context and apart from the other dimensions of performance

(technical, tactical and physical) since that according to Edgar Morin (2002)

none of these single dimensions should resume the others.

The periodization must assure an interconnection between the different

dimensions involved in sportive performance. Otherwise, we will not be working

the whole that is the player, coach or team. In this sense, a less singular and

more general concept of interactivity is needed (interactions whole – part and

part – parts) (LeMoigne, 1994). In line with this thought, our main findings

showed that some of the participants (coaches and athletes) mentioned using

psychological techniques (e.g., self-talk, imagery and goal-setting) not only for

psychological but also for technical, tactical and physical reasons (paper IV and

VI). Given this, instead of a “reductionism-interactionism” paradigm, a

“decomposition-articulation” may be more suitable. We believe that PST should

be potentiated in soccer according this perspective. In agreement with this,

Damásio (2003) mentioned that the perspective known in philosophy as

“substance dualism” (that sets apart mind from the body and brain), has long

been abandoned both in science and in philosophy.

Finally, the decision to use a qualitative methodology in the present

dissertation was based on the need of deeper studies of this nature on the area

of PST and also on the repeated suggestions as some of the most well

167

recognized researchers in sports psychology (e.g., Edwards, Kingston, Hardy, &

Gould, 2002; Vealey, 1988). For instance, an important direction for PST

research highlighted by Vealey (2007) was the utilization of qualitative methods

as an alternative to the traditional quantitative methods. For the author, this

approach can facilitate the development of appropriate PST approaches that

truly meet the needs of athletes’ and coaches. Additionally due to the lack of

descriptive studies on this specific area of research, i.e. PST applied to soccer,

(paper I), as well as the intend to explain in detail the state of the art about the

phenomenon, i.e. PST in Portuguese soccer, descriptive studies were

preferable in the present dissertation. This kind of research allows a measure of

status, which is useful to develop the theoretical framework on which

experimental research is based. Therefore the present dissertation provided a

good basis for the development of future experimental researches in this area.

As the Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu (cit. in Freitas, 2005) mentioned «a journey

of a thousand miles begins with a single step».

At this level, it should be recalled again, that the present dissertation only

examined the perspectives and opinions and consequently further investigation

should examine and observe the actual behaviors of the Portuguese soccer

coaches and players. In addition, further research should access to sport

psychologists (in particular those who have integrated professional soccer

teams) in an attempt to explore what they have done, in practice, as well as

their personal experiences within this context (coaches and players reactions,

problems faced, solutions adopted, methods and techniques used, and so on).

Moreover, although this dissertation reports to the professional context of

soccer, we believe that PST should also be applied to youth soccer contexts. In

our opinion, that is the right place to prevent some of the problematic situations

that may later arise in higher competitive levels. Thus, further investigation

should be conducted with youth soccer players and coaches.

Before finishing we would like to advance some considerations for future

directions on the theme explored in the present dissertation. Although all the

predictions are characterized by a dose of subjectivity and reliability, we believe

this dissertation provides relatively safe indicators that explicit that the

168

collaboration of sports psychologists in national professional soccer teams will

tend to increase in the next few years, resulting in clear benefits for all parts.

Indeed, the analysis of the perspectives of the participants of this dissertation

reveals not only that most coaches are receptive to collaborate with sports

psychologists (paper II), but also that a high number of players (much of which

could pursue a coach career) are receptive to psychological interventions

(paper V). In sum, the future is open but in order for that to happen without

major problems some steps has yet to be taken. The PST standardization, the

use of new teaching technologies, the elaboration of specific soccer programs,

the adjusted coordination between physical, technique, tactical and

psychological training plans, and the consideration of coaches and players

specific needs across different competitive moments are some of the aspects

that will allow the intentions of players and coaches to become a reality. On the

other hand, in such attractive and overwhelming world as the one of

professional soccer, it is crucial that psychologists will be prepared to match the

expectations of coaches, players and directors.

It would be expected that the present dissertation allows to all

intervenient of national soccer to improve their knowledge on the global reality

of PST in soccer, thus given them a chance to reflect on what can be changed.

169

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____________________

171

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