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Introduction

[1.1] Pop and rock music are frequently generalized as being in 4/4 meter throughout. (1!ike most generalizations" this issubstantially true" but#also like most generalizations#on closer e$amination the reality pro%es to be more complicated.

&umerous e$amples of rock songs that de%iate from the 4/4 norm through asymmetrical or changing meters" either

temporarily or on a large scale" are offered by '%erett ())*a" +),-*" osenberg ()1)" 4-*" 0oore ()1" -," and

tephens ()1+. ecent studies ha%e sho2n that listeners readily entrain to a regular meter and readily percei%e disruptions

of the metric hierarchy (!adinig et al. ))*" 3oning )1" itch )1+. 5his study e$plores the functions of such disruptions"

focusing on the interactions of metric dissonance 2ith phrase structure and form in 6nglophone rock music" 2ith a bias

to2ard classic and progressi%e rock" the repertoires 7 kno2 best. (7n the section that follo2s" 7 apply and adapt the model

of grouping and displacement dissonances de%eloped by 8aminsky (1*,* and 8rebs (1*** to rhythmic" metric" and

hypermetric structural le%els. 5he second section of the article offers a categorization scheme for metric dissonances in

terms of their formal functions" demonstrating that they can ser%e on a small scale as initiating dissonances" links bet2een

sections" or cadential hemiolas" and on a large scale to help demarcate formal sections. 5he last section presents corpus

studies of music by the 9eatles" the olling tones" :imi 3endri$" !ed ;eppelin" 5ool" adiohead" and )) of olling tone

0agazine)) ongs of 6ll 5ime"? and compares their different usages of metric dissonance by category and o%ertime.

[1.] 5he temporal organization of music can be sho2n as a series of layers mo%ing from subdi%isions of the beat at the

subtactus le%el" through the rhythmic or tactus le%el" the metric or bar le%el" to the hypermetric le%el and abo%e" as sho2n in

Example 1.3igher le%els of organization are percei%ed as grouping structures rather than metric structures" although phrase

and hypermeter occur at the same le%el and often coincide. 5his model subdi%ides 9ro2er

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[1.+] 6s numerous commentators ha%e obser%ed" the layers in this model of temporal organization do not all beha%e in

precisely the same 2ay" nor are they percei%ed in the same 2ay. (+hythmic dissonances" 2hich do not normally disrupt the

meter (8rebs7n maintaining a distinction bet2een the rhythmic and metric layers" 7 am follo2ing

3uron ())" !ondon ()1" and other cogniti%e theorists.(6 similar distinction bet2een rhythmic dissonances that fit

2ithin a comparati%ely regular metric grid and metric dissonances that do not is made by 3atten ())" K-KK and !o%e

()1+" 4," as 2ell as ykes (1**" 5emperley (1***" " Pressing ())" +)1" and '%erett ())*a" , and +11-1>" in

discussions specific to popular music. 3ypermetric dissonances disrupt the 2ellGestablished popGrock norm of 4Gbar units. (K

chachter (1*,K" ,,-,* and 3uron ())" 1*>-1* ha%e obser%ed the increased preference for dupleGbased groupings at

higher le%els of organization" 2hich 3uron calls the =binary default.? 7n rock music" displacements and groupings other than

quadruple are more common at lo2er le%els and increasingly less common at the hypermetric le%el and abo%e. Cissonances

at any le%el may be 2eak or strong and smallGscale or largeGscaleJ 2eak and smallGscale dissonances are likely to function on a

single le%el" 2hile strong and largeGscale dissonances ha%e the potential to disrupt the ne$t higher le%el as 2ell.

[1.4] ock music de%eloped from a combination of other genres" including rhythm L blues and country" but from its

beginnings it 2as strongly associated 2ith dance. 5hus many rock songs are indeed in a regular 4/4 meter" 2hich is often

o%ertly iterated in the accompaniment pattern. 7nterest and tension are created through rhythmic dissonance at the tactus

le%el" 2hich is an essential style feature of the genre (3esselink )14. hythmic dissonance is typically most prominent inthe main melodic layer" normally %oice or lead guitar" figured against the ground of a generally regular pattern in the drum

part" 2hich is most often M or 1 bar long. Cue to the ubiquity of these short repeated patterns in the drum parts and the

e$plicit metric frame2ork pro%ided by the timekeeping layer(s of the te$ture such as the drum part and rhythm guitar" the

metric unit of the bar and the background grid of the meter ha%e greater salience in rock and other %ernacular musics than in

art music. (,5hus 7 ha%e adopted a paradigm that separates rhythm and meter" in contrast to the model of meter as the sum

total of interacting rhythmic layers in a 2ork used by 8rebs and others. 6s Nracyk has obser%ed" =ock bears constant

2itness to the distinction bet2een meter and rhythm? (1**" 1+4.

Theoretical Model

[.1] 8rebs (1*** identifies t2o basic types of metric dissonanceF displacement dissonance" in 2hich the grouping of units

remains the same but the position of the first unit is shifted either for2ard or back2ard in time" and grouping dissonance" in

2hich the grouping of units changes" as in a hemiola (Example 2a. (*'ither type of dissonance can be direct" occurring

simultaneously 2ithin the musical te$ture" or indirect" occurring successi%ely bet2een phrases or sections. Cirect

displacement dissonances remain out of phase until one or the other pattern is adOusted" but direct grouping dissonances

cyclically realign at a period equal to the product of their groupings (duple and triple groupings align e%ery si$ units" triple

and quadruple groupings align e%ery t2el%e units" etc.. 0irka ())*" 14+ further categorizes metric dissonances as split"

belonging to different auditory streams" or merged" belonging to the same stream. 5his study 2ill consider both displacement

and grouping dissonances as they most commonly occur in rockGcompositional practiceF indirect and split.

[.] 9utler ()) groups rhythmic patterns in electronic dance music into categories that are similar to those of

displacement and grouping dissonanceF syncopated rhythms" comprising accents on 2eak beats that (unlike in 8rebs is + or +J K is +" +" or less

commonly" +. !ondon ()1 refers to these as nonGisochronous (&7 meters" 2hich are ma$imally e%en and ha%e

groupings of roughly but not precisely equal size that participate in a larger isochronous cycle.(19ecause of these larger

periodic cycles" asymmetrical meters are considered consonant" but because of their unequal groupings they are inherently

less stable than symmetrical meters such as 4/4. Ahanging or asymmetrical meters in one section often create an indirect

grouping dissonance 2ith regular 4/4 meter in an adOacent section" most commonly bet2een the introduction and %erse or

bet2een the %erse and chorus.

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[.4] 5he follo2ing section offers e$amples of displacement and grouping dissonances at rhythmic (tactus" metric" and

hypermetric le%els. 6lthough the primary concern of this study is the metric or bar le%el" 7 ha%e pro%ided e$amples at the

le%els immediately abo%e and belo2 for comparison" as 2ell as a fe2 e$amples of dissonances that participate in more than

one le%el.

Rhythmic Dissonance

[+.1] 6n instance of direct rhythmic displacement at the tactus le%el occurs in the chorus melody of 8ansas

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maintain a 4/4 hearingJ thus this dissonance is rhythmic but only 2eakly metric.

[4.+] 7ndirect grouping dissonance at the metric le%el is created bet2een the changing meter in the %erse of ush.] 3ypermetric grouping dissonance is e$emplified in another 9eatles song" =7 6m the Ialrus? (1*K" diagrammed in

Example b. 5he +Gbar %ocal phrases are out of alignment 2ith the harmonic pattern. 5he harmony in the first bar is an 6

maOor chord o%er a bass 6 that mo%es do2n a step to N. 5he repetition of this progression in the third bar sounds like a ne2

beginning" grouping the chord pattern as 4 or perhaps . 5he drums" ho2e%er" follo2 the %ocal phrases" shifting

after three bars from a bassGdrum hit on beats 1 and + to a bass hit on each beat. 6lthough the 9eatles are kno2n for their

irregular phrase structures ('%erett ))*b" in the broader conte$t of rock music in general" these regular +Gbar phrases

di%erge from the 4Gbar norm. Iithin the conte$t of this song" they represent an increase in stability o%er the ambiguous

groupings of the KMGbar introduction and >Gbar bridge" and create an indirect grouping dissonance against the regular 4Gbar

phrases of the outro.

!ac"beat #ccompaniment $atterns

[.1] 9efore mo%ing on to the formal functions of metric dissonance" 7 2ill address the status of an important foundational

metric unit" the backbeat. 5he most common drum pattern throughout rock and related genres is a backbeat pattern kno2n

as the =standard rock beat? (Example %" (1Ka quarterGnote pattern in 4/4 consisting of a bass (or kick drum on beats 1 and

+ and a snare drum on beats and 4" 2ith the hiGhat cymbals or sometimes the ride cymbal iterating a regular ,thGnote

subdi%ision. (1,5he snare drum is higher in pitch" has a sharper timbre" and as the sound 2a%eform belo2 the notation

sho2s" is louder than the bass drum#thus it is registrally" timbrally" and dynamically more prominent. 5his creates a clear

distinction 2ithin the pattern bet2een oddGnumbered and e%enGnumbered beats" and places se%eral types of phenomenal

accent on 2hat are traditionally the 2eak beats in a 4/4 pattern. 9utterfield ()) interprets the role of the snare in this

pattern as fundamentally anacrustic because of its timbre" frequency" and durational bre%ity compared to the bass drum. 7

interpret this last reason as support for the opposite interpretationF 7 hear the snare hits primarily as reacti%e rebounds"

functionally more continuational than anacrustic. (1*9ecause the bass drum is more resonant than the snare" it is more

strongly connected to the snare than the snare drum is to the bass. ubdi%isions of the snare hits into ,th or 1th notes on

beats and/or 4 make the backbeats more anacrustic" because they are follo2ed by a longer duration" and subdi%isions of

the bass drum into ,th notes on beat 1 and/or + make the backbeats more continuational" because they are preceded by

shorter durations. ()

[.] 9ecause it is an essential component of the meter" functioning as a timeline#a rhythmic ostinato around 2hich the

other parts are organized#7 consider the backbeat in rock music to be an instance of displacement consonance rather than

dissonance. 7 hold this %ie2 in part because there is still an accent on beats 1 and +" as demonstrated by the propensity of

musically untrained listeners to clap on beats 1 and + of a backbeat rather than and 4 (see 3ein )1+. 0ore importantly"

the backbeat is conte$tually consonant because it is a basic rhythmic unit that typically continues throughout the song" 2ith

no e$pectation of a resolution to a consonant pattern. 6 pitchGbased analogy is the consonant status of the dominant Kth

chord in the conte$t of the bluesF it is the basic harmonic unit" 2hich does not resol%e. :ust as the tension of the dominant

function in blues is often e$pressed through alterations or e$tensions of a dominant Kth chord such as raised or lo2ered

chord fifths or ninths" temporal dissonance in rock music is typically e$pressed by patterns that create tensions against the

underlying backbeat. 9utler e$presses a similar %ie2 of the backbeat as consonantF =7n rock" funk" and other traditions 2ith

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roots in 6fricanG6merican musical practice" strong phenomenal accents on the second and fourth beats of the measure are

so per%asi%e that this trait can be regarded as normati%e . . . there is little reason to regard the attacks on beats and 4 as

belonging else2here? ())" ,K. 7n a recent paper" Iilson ()14 makes the same argument for regarding triple meter in the

arabande as a =dualGaspect meter? 2hich establishes a beat hierarchy and a separate accent pattern" creating a =comple$

metrical consonance? that treats the emphasis on beat as e$pected and referential and thus not in need of resolution.

imilarly" ;biko2ski ())4" ,* puts forth the proposition that meter in pop and rock is typically quadruple 2ith t2o le%els

that distinguish beats 1 and + from beats and 4. 7n contrast" the conception of =shado2 meter? e$plored in othstein

(1**> and amarotto (1*** interprets regularly recurring accent patterns as challenging" rather than enriching" the primary

meter.

[.+] 6n essential characteristic of the backbeat pattern is that beats 1 and + are in a lo2er register than beats and 4" e%en in

instrumentations other than drums. 7n Rueen beats is subdi%ided into a bar of +/4 follo2ed by a bar of /4" but because of the

moti%ic repetition of N-9 -A in the melody" 7 ha%e transcribed it as /4 follo2ed by +/4. 5his interpretation also makes

more sense in light of the instrumental %erse at 1F of the recording" 2hich is accompanied by a backbeat (as 2ell as a

thicker te$ture including brass" sho2n on the bottom staff. Parsing the opening as /4 follo2ed by +/4 aligns the bass drum

2ith the do2nbeat in the second bar" although it falls out of alignment until the rest at the end of the fourth bar realigns it

2ith the other parts in the fifth bar.

[K.+] 5he second type of initating dissonance" the =fakeGout"? is e$emplified by the beginning of 5he Aars< =:ust Ihat 7

&eeded? (Example 1+b" a metrically displaced opening. 5he loud chords spaced four beats apart suggest do2nbeats" but

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2hen the %ocals come in and the harmony changes on 2hat turns out to be the real do2nbeat" 2e retrospecti%ely reinterpret

the chords in the introduction as displaced back2ard by a quarter note. 5he palmGmuted guitar strumming does begin on

beat 1 of the real meter" but in the absence of any other metric cues this could also be heard as beginning on beat follo2ing

an empty do2nbeat. 6dditional e$amples of initiating dissonances are sho2n in Example 1+c" correlated 2ith !ondon] 7n the chorus of Ca%id 9o2ie

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[K.,] Ene instance of !@5A is 6lice in Ahains

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[,.1] 7n the last section of this paper" 7 pro%ide a more empirically oriented sur%ey of the 2ays in 2hich these types of

dissonance play out in the repertoire" through a series of corpus studies. 7 ha%e analyzed the metric structures of large

collections of songs by 5he 9eatles" 5he olling tones" :imi 3endri$" !ed ;eppelin" adiohead" 5ool" and a multiGartist

corpus of )) songs e$tracted by CeAlerq and 5emperley ()11 from Rolling Stonemagazine)) Nreatest

ongs of 6ll 5ime.? 5he 9eatles are arguably the greatest and most important rock band of all time" 2hile 5he olling

tones 2ere their contemporaneous ri%als and the t2o groups are still frequently compared (see" for e$ample" Ceogatis and

8ot )1)J 0c0illian )1+. 5he 9eatles 2ere more compositionally in%enti%e and dre2 from a 2ider range of stylistic

influences" 2hereas the tones 2ere more firmly rooted in blues and rock. 3endri$ and !ed ;eppelin" like the 9eatles" 2ere

seminal inno%ators" influential on the later de%elopment of both rock and metal. Ef the t2o more recent bands" 5ool is a

progressi%e metal band participating in and e$tending many of the same stylistic elements as !ed ;eppelin" 2hile adiohead

is perhaps best classified as e$perimental alternati%e rock. 5he Rolling Stone corpus functions as a control" a%eraging the

metric profile of a 2ide %ariety of artists and styles. or the analyses" 7 tabulated instances of each separate type of metric

dissonance 2ithin a song" not counting repeats.(+,Snmetered songs 2ere e$cluded from the study. &umerous songs use

more than one type of dissonance" 2hich is 2hy the numbers in the graphs add up to more than the song totals in some

cases. or each corpus" a typological bar graph sho2s the relati%e proportions of metric consonance and the different types

of metric dissonance" and a chronological bar graph sho2s the proportions of consonance and smallG and largeGscale metric

dissonances by year. 5hese statistics can be used as a comparati%e tool to e$amine the metric profile of each band

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(1**>/ 87 Comp(ter(1**K/ 7id A()))"Amnesiac ())1" "ail to the Thie())+" and .n Rainbo-s ())K. 5heir corpus"

sho2n in Examples 2+a and 2+b" has a surprisingly consonant o%erall profile" largely because the band uses rhythmic

dissonance much more per%asi%ely than metric dissonance. 5heir 1**> album The Bendsis especially consonant" 2hich may

reflect its strong grunge influence" the band)s pop music and any other songs that use tambourine.

7n genres such as funk" rap" and dance music" 2hich incorporate a lot of displacement dissonance" it seems to be in%ersely

correlated 2ith grouping dissonance" 2hich is significantly less common in these genres. Eutside of these genres"

displacement dissonance tends to be more often rhythmic rather than metric" and in either case is usually confined to the

main melody layer (guitar or %oice" perhaps in order to a%oid challenging the do2nbeat. Nrouping dissonances also occur in

the melody layer alone" but unlike displacement dissonances they are more often e$pressed by multiple layers of the te$ture"

perhaps because they do not challenge the do2nbeat in the same 2ay" but rather periodically realign. 5he most per%asi%e use

of grouping dissonance is found in progressi%e rock" a genre in 2hich metric play is a stylistic hallmark. (4)inally" in terms

of recording techniques" often 2hen metric dissonance occurs in a song the metrically consonant bass and drums are

adOusted to be more prominent in the mi$.

[,.*] 7n summary" in this paper 7 ha%e offered a model of structural temporal le%els of rhythmic" metric" and hypermetric

dissonance" proposed an interpreti%e model for the backbeat" demonstrated the common functions of smallGscale metric

dissonances in rock to begin and end phrases and sections" demonstrated the common functions of largeGscale metric

dissonances in rock to enhance contrast bet2een sections and create a largeGscale interplay bet2een tension and stability" and

sur%eyed the pre%alence of these types in rockGcompositional practice through a series of selected corpus studies. 7 hope this

2ork can ser%e as a useful basis for future research" as the interactions of rhythm" meter" form" and te$ture in rock music are

rich and %aried" offering fertile ground for future theoretical and analytical 2ork in this domain. 7 hope" also" to ha%e

suggested some 2ays of understanding the 2ays in 2hich 2e hear" perform" and engage bodily 2ith rock music.

/icole !iamonte

Mc0ill niersity

Department o) Music Research Music Theory #rea

rue -herbroo"e .Montreal 5, H3# 1E3

,anada

nicole.biamonte6mc7ill.ca

8or"s ,ited

6dam" &athan. )11. =Aoding 87 Comp(ter. Aategorization and Aharacterization of Cisrupti%e 3armonic and hythmic

'%ents in ock 0usic.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of 0ichigan.

6ttas" obin. )11. =0eter as Process in Nroo%eG9ased Popular 0usics.? PhC diss." Sni%ersity of 9ritish Aolumbia.

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9anfield" tephen. 1**+. Sondheims Broad-ay M(sicals. Sni%ersity of 0ichigan Press.

9aur" tephen. )1. =9ackbeat.? 3rove #ictionary o American M(sic" nd ed. E$ford Sni%ersity Press.

5he 9eatles. 1**+. Complete Scores: &(ll Transcriptions rom the 8riginal Recordings*3al !eonard.

9enadon" ernando" and 5ed Nioia. ))*. =3o2 3ooker ound 3is 9oogieF 6 hythmic 6nalysis of a Alassic Nroo%e.?

op(lar M(sic, no. 1F 1*-+.

9enOamin" Iilliam. )11. =3ypermetric Cissonance in the !ater Iorks of obert chumann.? 7n Rethin;ing Sch(mann" ed.

oeG0in 8ok and !aura 5unbridge" )-+4. E$ford Sni%ersity Press.

9erry" Iallace. 1*K. Str(ct(ral &(nctions in M(sic. PrenticeG3all.

9ourque" 0atthe2. ))4. =6pproaching the 'dgeF Hes

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So(ndscapes+ ()))" httpF//222.icce.rug.nl/Xsoundscapes/@E!S0')+/iseWandWfall).shtml

'ggertson" 8ristine. ))+. =UIhere is the 0eterY< 6n 7n%estigation of hythmic Process in 9Oork. =5he 9eatles as AomposersF 5he Nenesis ofAbbey Road" ide 52o.? 7n Concert M(sic/ Roc; and ?a@@ since

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0c0illian" :ohn. )1+. Beatles vs* Stones*imon L chuster.

0ehldau" 9rad. )1. =ock 3emiolas.? 7n Arcana 6.: M(sicians on M(sic" ed. :ohn ;orn. 6%ailable at

httpF//222.bradmehldau.com/rockGhemiolas/.

0irka" Canuta. ))*.Metric Manip(lations in "aydn and Mo@art: Chamber M(sic or Strings/ 1IJIK1I.

&eal" :ocelyn. 1**,. =5he 0etric 0akings of a Aountry 3it.? 7n Reading Co(ntry M(sic: Steel 3(itars/ 8pry Stars/ and

"on;y=Ton; Bars/ed. Aecelia 5ichi" +-+K. Cuke Sni%ersity Press.

&g" amuel. ))>. =6 3r(ndgestalt 7nterpretation of 0etric Cissonance in the 0usic of :ohannes 9rahms.? PhC diss."

Sni%ersity of ochester.

Esborn" 9rad. )1). =9eats that AommuteF 6lgebraic and 8inesthetic 0odels for 0athGock Nroo%es.? 3am(t+" no. 1F

4+-,.

#####. )1+. =ub%erting the @erseGAhorus ParadigmF 5erminally Alimactic orms in ecent ock 0usic.? M(sic

Theory Spectr(m+>" no. 1F +-4K.

#####. )14. =8id 6lgebraF adioheadF 1->.

PhillipsGil%er" :essica" A. 6thena 6ktipis" and Nregory 9ryant. )1). =5he 'cology of 'ntrainmentF oundations of

Aoordinated hythmic 0o%ement.?M(sic erception," no. 1F +-14.

Pieslak" :onathan. ))K. =eGcasting 0etalF hythm and 0eter in the 0usic of 0eshuggah.? M(sic Theory Spectr(m*" no. F

1*-4>.

Pressing" :eff. )). =9lack 6tlantic hythmF 7ts Aomputational and 5ranscultural oundations.?M(sic ercepti on1*" no. +F

,>-+1).

Prgler" :oseph. 1**>. =earching for 2ingF Participatory Ciscrepancies in the hythm ection.? thnom(sicology+* no. 1F

1->4.

ahn" :ohn. 1**. =5urning the 6nalysis 6roundF 6fricaGCeri%ed hythms and 'uropeGCeri%ed 0usic 5heory.? Blac; M(sic

Research ?o(rnal1" no. 1F K1-,*.

ock2ell" :oti. ))*. =9anOo 5ransformations in 9luegrass hythm.??o(rnal o M(sic Theory>+" no. 1F 1+K-.

ohr" Ceborah. 1**K. =9rahms. =3o2 to ur%i%e a 5rain IreckF 6nalysis of the 5rickiest Crum 7ntros on ecord.? #R9M' Maga@ine"

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Cecember ))>. httpF//222.drummagazine.com/lessons/post/analysisGofGtheGtrickiestGdrumGintrosGonGrecord/

heinbaum" :ohn. )1+. =Progressi%e ock and the 7n%ersion of 0usical @alues.? 7n rogressive Roc; Reconsidered" nd ed." ed.

8e%in 3olmG3udson" +)->. outledge.

mith" Peter. ))1. =9rahms and the hifting 9arlineF 0etric Cisplacement and ormal Process in the 5rios 2ith Iind

7nstruments.? 7n Brahms St(dies" ed. Ca%id 9rodbeck" 1*1-*. Sni%ersity of &ebraska Press.

tephens" 9etsey (9et;e1+. )1+. =Edd 5ime Ebsessed.? Iebsite at httpF//222.oddtimeobsessed.com/.

te2art" 6le$ander. ))). =Uunky Crummer

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'$. +a. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith 8erry !i%gren" =Aarry En Iay2ard on? in The Best o 7ansas"

Nuitar ecorded @ersions" transcribed by :esse Nress and 9ill !aleur (3al !eonard" 1***.

'$. +b. 5ranscription adapted from 6nthony 7ommi" :ohn Esbourne" Iilliam Iard and 5erence 9utler" =Paranoid? in Blac;

Sabbath: aranoid" Nuitar ecorded @ersions (3al !eonard" 1**K.

'$. +c. 5ranscription adapted from 6ngus Houng" 0alcolm Houng" and 9rian :ohnson" =or 5hose 6bout to ock (Ie

alute Hou? inAC,#C Anthology/Nuitar 5ablature 'dition (60AE" 1**.

'$. +d. 5ranscription by the author" in consultation 2ith 'd2ard @an 3alen" 6le$ @an 3alen" 0ichael 6nthony and Ca%id

!ee oth" =:ump? in 6an "alen: 1

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eturn to te$t

1. ee" for e$ample" 'ggertson ))+" +J Nraham ))," +>J and Pressing ))" *1.

eturn to te$t

. 5he concept of metric dissonance as analogous to pitch dissonance has been e$plored in Heston 1*K" !e2in 1*,1and

1*,K" !ester 1*," 8aminsky 1*,*" 8rebs 1*,Kand 1***" Aohn 1**band ))1" 0urphy ))*" 0alin )1)" and other

sourcesJ many of these note the common coincidence of dissonance in both domains in compositional practice (for an

argument against the %ie2 of metric space and pitch space as isomorphic" see !ondon )). or analyses of metric

dissonances in electronic dance music" see 9utler ))1 and ))J in funk" see 3ughes ))+ and Canielsen ))J in

mathGrock" see Esborn )1)J in country" see &eal 1**," and in bluegrass" see ock2ell ))*.eturn to te$t

+. ee" for e$ample" Alarke 1*,KJ 9ro2er 1**+J 7yer 1**," K-K+J and 0alin )1)" 4>-4.

eturn to te$t

4. ee te2art )))and 9enadon and Nioia ))* for discussions of the shift from s2ung to straight subdi%isions in

6merican popular music from the later t2entieth century.

eturn to te$t

>. 5he role of metric dissonance in articulating form is considered in othstein 1*,*" risch 1**)" 3orlacher 1**"5rucks

1**" 8rebs 1***" mith ))1" &g ))>" and others. 5he e$pressi%e roles of rhythmic and metric dissonance in !ieder are

e$plored in ohr 1**KJ 8rebs 1***" ))*" and )11J amarotto ))>J and 0alin ))and )1).

eturn to te$t

. ee" for e$ample" Alarke 1*,K" 3andel 1**," 7yer 1**," and 8eller and 9urnham ))>. 5he model of rhythm and meter as

separate" although interrelated" domains stands in contrast to those presented in 8rebs (1***" Aohn ())1" !eong ())K

and 0urphy ())*" 2hich include different durational le%els under the rubric of meter" or 3asty (1**K" in 2hich meter is a

form of rhythm.

eturn to te$t

K. 3ypermetric displacement is analyzed in the music of 9eetho%en in Aohn 1**aand othstein 1*,*and 1**>J 3erbie

3ancock inIaters 1**J :osephine !ang in 8rebs ))>J and chumann in 9enOamin )11and 8rebs )11.

eturn to te$t

,. ee Ce Alercq )1" +K-+, for a discussion of potential problems in determining the bar in rock music.

eturn to te$t

*. 5hese categories are called 5ype 9 and 5ype 6 respecti%ely in 8rebs 1*,Kand olio 1**>.eturn to te$t

1). ee ahn (1** for a discussion of diatonic rhythms" and 5oussaint ()1+" chs. 1* and 1 for a discussion of ma$imally

e%en and nearGma$imally e%en rhythms in popular musics throughout the 2orld.

eturn to te$t

11. Esborn prefers the term UoddGcardinality meter< to Uasymmetric meter< on the grounds that =an odd number of pulses is

e%ery bit as symmetrical as an e%en number#perhaps more so" as the symmetrical di%ision of an odd number of pulses falls

on a beat instead of bet2een t2o beats? ()1)" 4+J ho2e%er" the unequal groupings of beats 2ithin these meters are likely to

be percei%ed by listeners as asymmetric.

eturn to te$t

1. !ondon identifies the property of ma$imal e%enness as a required criterion for metric 2ellGformedness" noting that it

ensures that different groupings occupy the same appro$imate temporal range and also allo2s listeners to optimize theirallocations of attentional energy ()1" 1>-*.

eturn to te$t

1+. ources for the transcriptions in this e$ample and those that follo2 are gi%en at the end of the article" after the Iorks

Aited.

eturn to te$t

14. 5he notation U>< in the chord chart refers to a po2er chord 2ith no third.

eturn to te$t

1>. 5hanks to 6ndre2 Iilson for pointing out the pattern in this e$ample.

eturn to te$t

19

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1. ee '%erett ())1" 1*K-)4 for a detailed discussion of this songJ he refers to the elision as a phraseGle%el metric

reinterpretation.

eturn to te$t

1K. 5he notation is reproduced from Iikipedia" =Crum beat? (7 ha%e added the instrument labels. 5he audio file is =9asic

ock 9eat? from tudio ock Crum !oops" 9eats L Crum Patterns" =** Crum !oops for Areating ongs? at

httpF//222.cdbaby.com/cd/**rockloops/from/greatindiemusic. 5he spectrogram 2as created from this audio file using the

audioGediting program 6udacity.

eturn to te$t

1,. a%age 1*,*obser%es that =contemporary drum beats reflect a 2ide di%ersity of influences in Iestern popular music.

9ut 2hat ties all these different threads together is the o%erriding force of the e%erGpresent backbeat? (1))J quoted in 5amlyn

1**," 1>. 7yer ))describes the backbeat as =indigenous to the modern drum kit? (4)>. 9aur )1identifies it as =one of

the most common and distincti%e features of postG1*>)s popular music.? 5amlyn estimates that an hour of rock or related

music comprises three thousand snare backbeats (1**," 1. 5hese assertions are supported by the pre%alence of

backbeatGbased rhythms demonstrated in 0auch and Ci$on )1J see also leet and Iinter )14.

5he pattern sho2n in '$ample is often described as the =standard? or =basic? rock beat or groo%eF see" for e$ample"

3offman 1*,+" 1K)J 9utterfield ))" `4)J6ttas )11" 4->J 0oore ))1" 4J and 0oore )1" >1->. ee5amlyn 1**,

for a historical and analytical study of the backbeat and other accompanimental rhythms in early rock and roll and other

genres.

eturn to te$t

1*. 9erry (1*K categorizes the directionality of rhythmic e%ents as anticipati%e" initiati%e" reacti%e" and conclusi%e" 2hich are

similar to 3asty no. 1. 9ecause they are t2oGsteps" most of

:oplin

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K. 6 temporary shift from duple to triple groupings has been described as =re%erse hemiola? by 9anfield (1**+" *" ohr

(1**K" 1K," 0alin ()1)" >>" and others.

eturn to te$t

,. ee 9rackett )),for a discussion of other rhythmic and metric dissonances in the music of !ed ;eppelin.

eturn to te$t

*. 5his kind of moti%ic displacement is the basis of numerous Oazz standards" such as Nersh2in identifies grouping asymmetry as typical of looseGknit organization.

eturn to te$t

++. ee Ce Alercq )1for a more detailed discussion of typical characteristics of bridges and other rock song sections.

eturn to te$t

+4. =oundabout? is analyzed in heinbaum )1+and 9ourque ))4" 1>-4J see also Ao%ach 1**Kon =Alose to the 'dge.?

eturn to te$t

+>. ee Esborn )1+for a discussion of =terminally climactic? song structures" and Esborn )14for a consideration of

ma$imally e%en rhythms in the music of adiohead. =Paranoid 6ndroid? is analyzed in6dam )11" +>->1" +>->1" and usch

)1+.

eturn to te$t

+. 5his e$ample is discussed in 9rackett )),and 0ehldau )1.

eturn to te$t

+K. 7n a similar %ein" 9utler obser%es that the comple$ layering of electronic dance music allo2s for interpreti%e multiplicity

and =di%erse e$periences of time? ())" 1.

eturn to te$t

+,. or the purposes of this study" t2o song pairs ha%e been treated as single songs because they ha%e the substantially the

same content and the same metric profileF =gt. Pepper

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medium in 2hich the items are to appearF

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