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ARKEOS | perspectivas em diálogo, nº 45Propriedade: Instituto Terra e MemóriaTítulo: Proceedings of the XVII UISPP World Congress. Miscellania.Editor: Luiz Oosterbeek© 2017, ITM e autorComposição: ITM Fotorreprodução, fotomontagem, impressão e acabamento: Instituto Terra e Memória Refª: Oosterbeek, L. (2017). Proceedings of the XVII UISPP World Congress. Miscellania. Mação: Instituto Terra e Memória, série Arkeos, vol. 45.

Tiragem: 500 exemplares | Depósito legal: 108 463 / 97ISSN: 0873-593X | ISBN: 978-989-20-8127-4

ARKEOS é uma série monográfica, com edição de pelo menos um volume por ano, editada pelo Instituto Terra e Memória, que visa a divulgação de trabalhos de investigação em curso ou finalizados, em Pré-História, Arqueologia, Gestão do Património e Gestão do Território. A recepção de originais é feita até 31 de maio ou 30 de novembro de cada ano, devendo os textos ser enviados em suporte digital, incluindo título, resumo e palavras-chave no idioma do texto do artigo, em inglês e em português. Os trabalhos deverão estar integrados na temática do volume em preparação e serão submetidos ao conselho de leitores. A aprovação ou rejeição de contribuições será comunicada no prazo de 90 dias.O presente volume é editado em versão impressa e em formato digital, de acesso livre. Os capítulos expressam exclusivamente as opiniões do seu autor. Capa: Adaptação da "Figura 2: Some archaeological remains found during the 2012 excavation (D. Mancini)" do artigo "e case-study of Villaggio delle Macine: a reflected image of the past" de autoria de Micaela Angle, Katia Francesca Achino e Pamela Cerino do presente volume.

Solicitamos permuta | On prie l’échange | Exchange wanted | Tauschverkehr erwunscht | Sollicitiamo scambio

CONTACTARInstituto Terra e Memória, Largo dos Combatentes, 6120-750 Mação, Portugal [email protected] - www.institutoterramemoria.org - apheleiaproject.org

MAÇÃO, 2017

(is publication is made with the support of the European Commission, through the KA2 action of the Erasmus + programme. e research is also supported by FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., through Portuguese funds, in the research project UID/Multi/00073/2013 of the Geosciences Centre of the

University of Coimbra).

PROCEEDINGS OF THE XVII UISPP WORLD CONGRESS. MISCELLANIA

| Editor: Luiz Oosterbeek |

MAÇÃO, 2017

Volume editado com a colaboração de:

| ARKEOS 45 | 7 | PROCEEDINGS OF THE XVII UISPP WORLD CONGRESS. MISCELLANIA |

Index

Foreword

Virtual palimpsests: augmented reality and the use of mobile devices to visualise the archaeological record. Dragoş Gheorghiu, Livia Ştefan

e case-study of Villaggio delle Macine: a reflected image of the past.Micaela Angle, katia Francesca Achino, Pamela Cerino

Correlating environmental events with human trends: a Late Bronze Age site and fluvial context in the Middle Euphrates Valley (Northeast Syria).Jorge Sanjurjo-Sánchez, Juan-Luis Montero Fenollós

Is processualist the shamanic interpretation of Palaeolithic art?Jose Fernandez Quitano

9

11

27

35

47


Foreword

UISPP has a long history, starting with the old International Association of Anthropology and Archaeology, back in 1865, until the foundation of UISPP itself in Bern, in 1931, and its growing relevance after WWII, from the 1950’s. We also became members of the International Council of Philosophy and Human Sciences, associate of UNESCO, in 1955.

In its XIVth world congress in 2001, in Liège, UISPP started a reorganization process that was deepened in the congresses of Lisbon (2006) and Florianópolis (2011), leading to its current structure, solidly anchored in more than twenty-five international scientific commissions, each coordinating a major cluster of research within six major chapters: Historiography, methods and theories; Culture, economy and environments; Archaeology of specific environments; Art and culture; Technology and economy; Archaeology and societies.

e XVIIth world congress of 2014, in Burgos, with the strong support of Fundación Atapuerca and other institutions, involved over 1700 papers from almost 60 countries of all continents. ey contribute with new advances into understanding the human past and its cultural diversity. is is what UISPP (www.uispp.org) is for, and this is also why we are currently engaged in contributing for the relaunching of Human Sciences in their relations with social and natural sciences, namely collaborating with the International Year of Global Understanding, in 2016, and with the World Conference of the Humanities, in 2017. e next congress of UISPP, in Paris (June 2018), will confirm this route.

e current volume includes four papers presented at the Burgos congress. e first paper, by Dragoş Gheorghiu and Livia Ştefan, proposes the use of computer-based technologies and mobile devices to achieve a palimpsest-like information layering. e second paper, by Micaela Angle, Katia Francesca Achino and Pamela Cerino, presents the results from a multidisciplinary research applied to the Bronze age site of Villaggio delle Macine, in Italy. In the third paper, by Jorge Sanjurjo-Sánchez and Juan-Luis Montero Fenollós, discuss new dating results for protohistoric contexts of the Middle Euphrates floodplain. e final paper, José Fernández Quintano, discusses the relation between archaeological theories and interpretations of Palaeolithic art.

Luiz OosterbeekSecretary-General


Virtual palimpsests: augmented reality and the use of mobile devices to visualise the archaeological record

DRAGOŞ GHEORGHIUDoctoral School, National University of Arts, 19 Budişteanu Str., Bucharest, Ro‐maniaLIVIA ŞTEFANDepartment of Computing Applications, Institute for Computers, Calea Floreasca 167, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract: To facilitate the archaeologists’ and public’s visualization of the stratigraphy of archaeological sites, we propose the use of computer-based technologies and mobile devices to achieve a palimpsest-like information layering. Specifically, we have developed a location sensitive mobile application using Augmented Reality technology and two information layers (corresponding to the Iron Age and Chalcolithic periods) on Google Maps, both providing users with a digital palimpsest of ancient habitation areas in Vădastra village (Southern Romania). e virtual layers are defined by several points-of-interest, augmented with rich archaeological and historical information, which can be individually selected and explored. e mobile application is an onsite research and educational tool, which augments the spatial and temporal perception of the past.

Keywords: Archaeological Stratigraphy; Virtual Palimpsest; Virtual Archaeology; Mobile Devices; Augmented Reality; Google maps;

1. Introduction In contemporary archaeology (Harris, 1989; Bentley, 2000),

as in landscape studies (Balley, 2007), the site is perceived as a sequence of related layers, i.e. a palimpsest. While for archaeologists this representation is a common fact, for the public at large visual representations are necessary to facilitate this perception of the past.

In this domain, the modern digital technologies play an important role in the creation of visual models that are easy to understand and manipulate. us, “digital reconstructions of archaeological excavation sites and their interactive visualization emerged as a powerful tool to communicate archaeological features and cultural knowledge to experts and a broad audience” (Trapp, 2012).


Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) technologies are becoming indispensable tools in contemporary archaeology research, interpretation and communication, especially in the latest decade characterized by exceptional development and diversity of capabilities and proliferation of intelligent devices (Papagiannakis at al., 2008). Among the technologies that were extensively and rapidly integrated into archaeological activities we count the Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) as the most frequently used (Eve, 2012; Forte, 2014; Berthelot, 2015).

e mobile devices (smartphones, tablet PCs) and accessories (recent 3D visualization glasses) are becoming more technically powerful and, at the same time, affordable for the great mass of users. A whole range of free mobile applications are now available, including Google Maps, making the mobile device a sensitive and intelligent tool. For this reason, mobile devices are currently the most suitable platform for AR applications.

Finally, even though there currently exist several implementations of mobile applications and AR for archaeology (Vlahakis, 2002; Papagiannakis and Magnenat-almann, 2007; Magnenat-almann et al., 2008; Stricker, 2011; Gheorghiu and Ştefan, 2012; Gheorghiu et al., 2013), they serve mostly to convey cultural heritage information to the public and less as a scientific tool.

In the present paper, the authors propose the usage of mobile devices, location-aware Augmented Reality applications and free mapping systems as investigative and research tools for archaeologists, as well as educational tools for the public. e proposed solution enables accessing specialized, context sensitive archaeological information, while providing a tool for experiential learning for the public, and mainly for the younger generations, as the early adopters and main users of the enabling technology.

e paper is structured as follows: a brief survey of the state-of-the-art in computer technologies used in contemporary archaeology, a rationale of our proposal, a short presentation of the authors’ previous work, a description of the solution, methods and results, and the final conclusions.

2. Computer technologies in contemporary Archaeology As already mentioned, the importance of ITC technologies in

contemporary archaeology can be seen from the creation of a new sub-discipline –Virtual Archaeology (Barcelo, 2000; Nicolucci, 2002) with a new type of visualization (Bernardes et al., 2012).

From this perspective, the current trend is towards perfecting the ITC tools for more realistic visualizations, a field of work which brings together archaeologist and computer specialists as “they create unique perspectives and new theoretical visions, advancing the construction of disciplinary knowledge, while making the audience extract meaning from the information being visualized” (Papadoupolos, 2010).

e research conducted on ICT technologies in archaeology


spans different activities such as data acquisition and processing, documentation, modelling, interpretation, validation, visualization and communication (Forte, 2014).

Even though VR and 3D modelling are not new technologies, dating from late nineteen eighties (Hermon, 2004), they offer new virtual and smart environments both for the researcher communities and for the public spaces. Virtual Archaeology (Barceló, 2000; Niccolucci, 2002) or Cyber-Archaeology (Forte, 2014) have become a “daily tool in the investigation of human past activity and its context” (Hermon, 2004), “by visually expressing alpha-numeric data and graphically expressing thoughts and ideas” (Hermon, 2004), but mainly by facilitating the representation and understanding of abstract concepts or aspects otherwise difficult to perceive.

In the present “cyber-era” (Forte, 2014) virtual representations such as virtual museums or 3D virtual worlds, have “the informational capacities to generate new knowledge” (Forte, 2014) and the digitized cultural heritage enables people to experience an immersive exploration (Heim, 1997).

One method that provides access to immersion is Augmented Reality (AR), a computer technology related to a more general “computer-mediated reality” class of technologies (Milgram and Kishino, 1994). e reality can be augmented or diminished with computer-created (i.e. virtual) objects and information which act on the user’s visual or aural perception. Specific to AR is that the virtual information is strongly related to real life information (Azuma, 1997), is generally captured by a video camera, and the merged image is projected on a head-up-display (e.g. Google glass or Microsoft Holo Lens), on a computer monitor, or on a mobile device live camera feed.

e quality of the new merged reality also gives a measure of the “presence” and immersion feeling (concepts discussed in Heeter (1992), Wagner et al. (2009), Witmer & Singer (1998), Zahorik & Jenison (1998), Pujol and Champion (2011). According to Eve (2012), the “presence means the perceptual illusion of non-mediation, and the ‘user’ acting in a mediated environment as if the mediation is not there”.

Also in Eve (2012) it is underlined that AR in archaeology “provide(s) a timely way to combine the strengths of a computer-based approach (reproducibility, experimentation, computer reconstruction) with archaeological phenomenology (embodied experience in the field)”. Archaeologists can take advantage of the AR applications to visualize and analyze different information in their real context and on a just-in-time basis (Trapp, 2012; Papagiannakis, 2010). For the public, AR is a recognized educational technology, “relevant for learning and creative inquiry” (Horizon Report, 2012) while mobile-learning is considered one of the key educational technologies for European Schools (Horizon Report, 2014).

e modern ICT technologies also allow the simulated revival of ancient places by means of character reconstructions and animations in virtual reality simulated environments: revival of life in ancient Pompeii, with virtual characters simulated in real-time using Augmented Reality (Papagiannakis and Magnenat-almann, 2007) or story-based interactive storytelling (Hermon, 2004); re-enactments


(Gheorghiu and Ştefan, 2012; Gheorghiu et al., 2013) or mobile AR games (Maiorescu and Sabou, 2013).

Finally, a visualization in space and time (4-dimension) for different time periods was developed for the reconstruction of the city of Koblenz (Laycock et al., 2008) by means of a “4D navigable movie” (Trapp, 2012). Another type of computer technology frequently employed by archaeologists is Geographic Information Systems (GIS) which are digital interactive mapping systems, comprising both hardware and software tools. In Politis (2008) they are defined as “system(s) for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data and associated attributes which are spatially referenced to the earth.”

Using GIS in archaeology it is possible to “link information to location data, such as time to archaeological places, different earth surface levels to excavation periods, or different border lines within eras” (Politis, 2008). A great advantage of using GIS in archaeology is that it allows the use of “nonvisual data into a visual image by mapping its values into visual characteristics” (Hermon, 2006). A broadly used GIS with applications in archaeology is Google Maps (GM), a public web-based GIS, which requires only a web browser and internet connection for its utilization. GM is also available on mobile devices with an offline capability – as the maps can be loaded online, and used afterward without an internet connection (offline).

GM offers the possibility to create custom layers, either by programming with Google API (application programming interface) or by means of a point-of-interest (POIs) editor. e editor allows the labeling of the POIs, as well as the attachment to them of symbols and images stored on public websites (e.g. Panoramio, Flickr). e most recent version of the GM engine expands the range of augmented information to include video recordings. e layers, comprising several POIs, can be saved and imported on other devices using a recognized file format (KML/KMZ), or can be made publically visible. Possible examples of GIS applications in archaeology could be: Google-Earth-based meta-interface providing access to cultural data (Coralini et al., 2012), or a 4-dimensional map using GM and Augmented Reality (Gheorghiu, 2012; Gheorghiu and Ştefan, 2013b).

Currently mobile devices offer different technical capabilities integrated into a single apparatus: photo camera, front and rear video camera, GPS receiver, sensors (gyroscope and compass), internet and wireless connectivity. e increasing processing power enables the present mobile devices to support sophisticated applications (e.g. games). e internet and wireless connections, including to social networks that can be linked to different applications, increase the ubiquity of the information.e development of the AR technology was also conditioned by the rapid growth of the mobile capabilities (Papagiannakis et al., 2008). e sensors perform the image recognition, the user’s location or direction of movement, determining a precise correlation and interactivity of the displayed information.

For archaeologists, the mobile devices put them in “an authentic context and culture” (Politis, 2008), to cite only Gheorghiu and Ştefan (2012).


3. Previous worke already mentioned potential of the ITC technologies

and mobile devices was explored by the authors in different educational projects trying to transmit the archaeological information in situ at rural schools from Southern Romania (Gheorghiu et al., 2013; Ştefan and Gheorghiu, 2013; Gheorghiu and Ştefan, 2014b). e acquired archaeological data from archaeological experiments was transferred as story-based re-enactments with the purpose of preserving the collection of material and immaterial heritage (Gheorghiu et al., 2013; Gheorghiu and Ştefan, 2012) and afterwards was made accessible from mobile devices. Educational experimentations conducted over three years with these IT&C tools and applications showed that children quickly acquired and displayed an extraordinary ability to manipulate these instruments, and also their important educational impact, especially the AR application.

4. Augmentation as palimpsestFollowing our objective to present in a clear, pedagogical

manner the archaeological sites under the form of a stratigraphy – palimpsest, we used the AR potential to enable the layering of different information - textual, visual, audio and 3D objects, and also to permit a manipulation of the visualization on the screen, which further allows the implementation of a story-based scenario, while the GM layer helps to create a spatial representation.

e entire AR application is similar to an information channel, with the information contextually delivered. e virtual information is displayed when certain conditions are fulfilled, in this case, in the proximity of geographical locations-of-interest (LOIs). Locations, and not geographical points, were defined, because the GPS precision is average and also because we wished to differentiate them from Google Maps POIs (GM POIs).

e augmentation and layering of information is complementary to the creation of a custom Google Map layer in which we attached textual and multimedia information to several GM POIs. Both solutions, the mobile AR application and the customized and augmented GM layers could function as a virtual interactive archaeological palimpsest. We were interested in visualizing the prehistoric settlements under the form of tell in the Lower Danube area which often were overlapped by Bronze Age and Roman settlements, to create archaeological multilayered sites. In our case it is a superposition of two layers of habitation, consisting of a Chalcolithic settlement (5th millennia BC) situated near the Danube (i.e. eponymous site Vădastra), which was superimposed by a Roman settlement from the second century AD.

Vădastra is an important archeological site on the map of Romania, the first prehistoric settlement dug in the 19th century (Bolliac 1872; Bolliac 1876), and which has been studied for several decades in the 20th century (Mateescu, 1974). In the last decade, a number of archaeological experiments were conducted at this site (Gheorghiu, 2001; http://timemaps.net/timemap/?page_id=2533)


involving the local community (Gheorghiu and Ştefan, 2012; Gheorghiu and Ştefan, 2013), with the intention of retransmitting the information on the ancient technologies to the community and an explicit historical presentation of the place. We wanted to provide both the specialists and local community with a more explicit and easy to remember image of the Vădastra settlement, both in terms of archaeological and anthropological information. For this we defined each layer of occupation by a network of roads and points of interest, in a diagrammatic form of lines and dots.

en we visualized the Vădastra settlement as two superimposed planes, the Roman layer overlapped over the Chalcolithic (Fig. 1, 2). ese two complementary representations of the site proved their educational value, as will be shown below.

Figura 1: e prehistoric road. Vădastra village, Romania. Photo

and © Dragoş Gheorghiu, 2015

5. MethodsIn the first application, we wanted to present the Roman road

that connected a villa rustica which overlapped a part of the upper level of the Chalcolithic tell and continued along the local river valley. A second application was designed to simultaneously present the collecting layers of dwelling of the Vădastra site dating from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. To achieve this synoptic picture of the different layers of habitat, the palimpsest model was used, i.e. overlapped layers which can be viewed together to understand the superimposed process of dwelling, in time, in a single place.To approach the local stratigraphy the following methods were employed:

1) e delimitation of the study area using geo-tracking methods. e authors used an Android application (“My Tracks”) which recorded under the form of a continuous track the geographic


Figura 2: e Roman road. Vădastra village, Romania. Photo and © Dragoş Gheorghiu, 2015.

locations as they walked marking the areas where archaeological vestiges were discovered. ese tracks were exported and loaded automatically as geographic layers on Google Maps using a synchronization between the mobile device and the online Google Maps server.

2) e presentation of the augmented information in a fractal manner (Gheorghiu and Ştefan, 2014) presenting the stratigraphy as axonometric overlapped planes (Fig. 3). Along the tracks we marked two locations corresponding to the centre of the delimited areas, and several LOIs defined by rigorous measurements of the geographic positions (latitude, longitude coordinates) of the archaeological finds. With the GM, we defined corresponding GM POIs augmented with a) textual information; b) 2D images; c) video films with re-enactments of traditional technologies, interpreted by artists and technicians from NUA; d) assignment of chronological values to each artifact.

For the AR application, some LOIs were augmented with 3D reconstruction of artifacts (Fig. 4). e AR palimpsest worked as follows: when the area is geographically identified, the settlement’s layers were displayed under the form of overlaid images. is palimpsest presents the archaeological stratigraphy using the axonometric planes of the most significant levels of dwelling. When the user selects one of these planes, the architectural reconstructions of the ancient dwellings in 3D or 2D are displayed. As the user is walking and exploring the area around, several LOIs, at different fractal levels of information, are revealed (made visible), consisting in the images of the most specific objects from each architectural reconstruction, and also as video films with re-enactments. Each LOI also displays the distance from the user’s location. e dimension of the images or 3D objects is directly proportional with the distance between the viewer and them: the closer


the user is to that POI, the larger the image on the screen appears. e augmentations are described in an XML structure, which uses tags to represent different levels of information. e XML file can be modified without the need to re-install the application.

Figura 3: e virtual

palimpsest using Google Maps

custom layers. © Dragoş

Gheorghiu, 2015.

Figura 4: Capture from

the “ar-palimpsest” AR

mobile application. ©

Dragoş Gheorghiu and

Livia Ştefan, 2015.


6. Results e mobile AR application named “AR-palimpsest” was

implemented as a Junaio AR channel (Junaio, 2015) and can be accessed by searching the name of the application in a Junaio AR client (“AR browser”) that can be freely downloaded from the Android PlayStore or iOS Store. e application functions on any smartphone and Tablet PC with Android or iOS, provided that an auto-focus rear camera is available. e application can also be automatically launched by scanning of a QR barcode with the smartphones, which codifies the address of the application, similar to a web link.

On GM two layers were created, “Vădastra eponymous Chalcolithic settlement” (Google Map prehistoric layer, 2015) and “Roman road in Vădastra village” (Google Map Roman layer, 2015) tracing the approximate habitation area and marked with LOIs augmented with rich textual information, images and videos with re-enactments of traditional technologies (Fig. 5, 6). e layers are made

Figura 5: An augmented Google Maps POI (the prehistoric layer). © Dragoş Gheorghiu and Livia Ştefan, 2015.

publicly accessible; the link to the map is provided as a tiny URL name (Google Map prehistoric layer, 2015; Google Map Roman layer, 2015).

Users which only seek to discover and understand archaeological palimpsests in the area of the Vădastra village, without being able to be onsite, can explore the augmented layers on Google Maps. ose which have a mobile device and the “AR-palimpsest” application will have a more complex instrument for exploration, leveraging both the augmented layers on the Google maps and the AR views. For a user in the proximity of the studied area, the AR application displays the two axonometric planes suggesting the main archaeological stratigraphy identified in the area of Vădastra. While the user is moving and approaching the areas of interest, more details are displayed under the form of LOIs, marked in different colors, corresponding to each archaeological layer. Each LOI (Fig. 7) can be selected and displays more information as texts, multimedia and a link


to the corresponding GM layer, suggesting the chronological order and permitting the immersion in the specific architectural reconstructions to take place, in a navigation starting from general to more detailed in‐formation.

At the Vădastra site the stratigraphic palimpsest is presented under the form of two specific layers of dwelling: Chalcolithic and Iron Age. To highlight these layers, we recreated them in virtual (1) and real-virtual (2) environments, as follows: 1) by using GIS technologies, several tracks were generated to delimit the areas with archaeological interest, on which the most important LOIs were further augmented with explanatory images and video films. e user can discover these tracks using Google Maps, either on PCs or mobile devices; 2) by developing an AR application for mobile devices, which offers a high degree of interactivity: the application displays in its real context images representing the overlaid settlement layers, positioned thus to suggest a chronological order, from the most recent to the oldest layer of dwelling. By selecting an archaeological layer from the palimpsest, the application offers new levels of information on the architecture and artifacts.

e AR technology on mobile devices offered us several technological affordances. e augmentations are positioned on the screen in relation with the information received from the device’s sensors and by manipulating the graphical information. For this purpose: a) the information becomes context sensitive; b) for each LOI a distance and also a direction is calculated and displayed; c) the chronological order of information is suggested by a display in a vertical plane and also by different colors for the LOIs; d) the ordered display of information sequences from general to detailed, in a horizontal plane, was suggested by corresponding calculation of the geographical positions of the LOIs from the center of the area; e) the integration with the mapping technologies (Google Maps on PCs or mobile devices) offers a dual view; f ) integration with other services, like email or social networks; g) the possibility to take and send a snapshot of the mixed reality.

7. Discussione AR technology on mobile devices offered us several

technological affordances to create a virtual interactive and immersive archaeological palimpsest with the following advantages: a) the presentation of the information in its real context; b) the display of information in a simulated chronological order in a vertical plane and with visual clues (colors and symbols) by association with 2 LOIs situated in the center of each archaeological layer; c) the display of information in sequences from general to detailed, in a horizontal plane, by association with several LOIs disposed at a certain distance; d) the augmentation with texts, images, videos and 3D objects; e) the integration with a GIS-based mapping system, i.e. Google Maps, the mobile version.

Complementarily to these advantages, a Google Maps custom layer was created, with continuous tracks of the archaeological areas, and relevant POIs augmented with textual information, images and video films. Our solution was tested by a group of children/students, aged 8-14 years from Vădastra Secondary School during several


summer campaigns. Two expeditions for discovering/identification of the two interest zones were organized. As the children did not know these zones, they were guided only by our application “AR-palimpsest” which was employed as a navigation and orientation tool. e visualizations on the Google map help them identify the area and orientate towards it. Afterwards a knowledge verification was made and the children/students could visualize and place in context the archaeological data presented during the tests. After the evaluation of the educational results of these educational experiments with children, we consider that the proposed application will prove useful in helping young people to visualize a site in context, as a palimpsest. Another evaluation was performed during the session “Session B55 - Advances in Archaeological Palimpsest Dissection”, at the XVIIth World UISPP Congress in Burgos in September 2014 (Fig. 8). e application was demonstrated interactively with a poster presentation (Fig. 9). To be able to simulate the location-awareness, in the XML file the geographical coordinates of Vădastra were modified with those of a proximity area around the University of Burgos. e archaeologists who used their smartphones could visualize the palimpsest of Vădastra and take an immersive tour of the two dwelling levels.

Figura 7: A LOI in the ar-palimpsest application. Photo and © Dragoş Gheorghiu and Livia Ştefan, 2015.


Figura 8: Interactive Map

at the XVII World UISPP

2014 Congress Burgos

September 2014. Photo and ©



Figura 9: Interactive Map

at the XVII World UISPP

2014 Congress Burgos

September 2014. Photo and ©



As a conclusion after these, and other evaluations performed in the last three years with the Portuguese collaborators in the Time Maps research project, the authors consider that the Augmented Reality application as a virtual palimpsest will help archaeologists, researchers and other interested users, access and visualize the archaeological information in an intuitive and holistic manner.

We also consider that the AR application, a location-aware


channel of information, will be useful for archaeologists, researchers and other interested users, to discover various historical sites, as well as access and visualize the archaeological information in an intuitive and integral manner.

Acknowledgementse authors thank Mrs. Carolina Mallol and Cristo M.

Hernández, organizers of the “Advances in Archaeological Palimpsest Dissection” session at XVIIth World UISPP Congress 2014, for their kind invitation to contribute to this session. We also express our gratitude to Mrs. Laura Voicu, the Principal of the Vădastra Secondary School and to the young local community for their involvement in our experiments. Not the least, we thank Mr. Bogdan Căpruciu for kindly proof-reading this paper. e research experiments, including the ITC, were part of the Time Maps project, a PN II IDEI grant.

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e case-study of Villaggio delle Macine: a reflected image of the past

MICAELA ANGLE KATIA FRANCESCA ACHINO PAMELA CERINO

Abstract: e pile-dwelling of Villaggio delle Macine, discovered in 1984 across the shore of the volcanic Albano Lake, is located in Central Italy and dated to the Middle Bronze Age. It was investigated firstly through underwater analysis and subsequently, thanks to a lake’s water drop which led to the partial emersion of the site, also through surveys and limited excavations. A great variability and richness of archaeological findings, both ecofacts and artefacts were recovered at the site. Analysis carried out through a multidisciplinary approach led to understanding the settlement’s peculiarity in the surrounding coeval panorama. is paper presents some preliminary results, aimed at exploring the activities carried out during the past at the site and its economic and internal complexity.

Keywords: Lakeside settlement, pile-dwelling, Bronze Age, Villaggio delle Macine

Introductione site of Villaggio delle Macine is an exceptional case of

pile dwelling for the central Tyrrhenian Italian area, dated to the late Early Bronze age – early Middle Bronze age (XIX-XVI BC.) (Angle et al 2002; Angle 2007; Chiarucci 1985, 1986-88, 1995-6; Zarattini 2001). It is located in the centre of Italy, near Rome, across the shore of the volcanic Albano Lake (fig. 1). Although such lake-side settlements are quite widespread in the Lazio region during this chronological phase (attested for example nearby the Mezzano Lake) (Sadori et al 2004) none of these sites showed the potential of Villaggio delle Macine, due to its width (about one hectare) and peculiar available datasets. Hence, the variety of archaeological findings, both ecofacts and artefacts, as well as precious objects such as ambers and glassy faïence, and the richness of activities which have been carried out at the site during the past, confirm its central role in the surrounding archaeological panorama.

e underwater discovery and the archaeological investigations e site was discovered just below the water-level of the

northern shore of the Albano crater lake in 1984 and investigated firstly through underwater excavations; archaeological finds such as pottery, millstones, piles and bronze artefacts were recovered and their distribution maps on surface ground were carried out (Zarattini 2001). A drastic progressive lake’s water drops due to climatic factors and


uncontrolled water-takings led to the partial emersion of the site. Consequently, some excavations campaigns in limited key areas were carried out in 2001, 2003, 2009 and 2012 (Fig. 1) (Angle et al 2002; Angle et al 2006; Angle 2007; Angle et al 2012). Furthermore, surveys campaigns were carried out on some remaining areas, in particular on the mainland and partially in the water during the years 2001, 2003, 2009 and 2012 (Angle 2007; Achino et al 2011; Achino et al 2013; Angle et al 2014); these analyses were carried out in order to integrate the available limited data and allowed to record all the emerged material evidences. rough these data we will be also able to identify the site’s boundaries and to verify the reliability of its estimated size, that is currently believed to be higher than one hectare.

e limited sectors excavated during the first campaign (2001) showed a stratigraphy characterized by a sequence of sub-horizontal levels (USs 1-6 & 10) alternated with others defined by decomposed vegetation (USs 2 and 9) (Angle et al 2002; Angle 2007). In 2003, a further lake’s water drop caused the emersion of an additional wide portion of the site. Unfortunately, this phenomenon highlighted the serious issue of the preservation of this lake settlement, since the drastic loss of humidity leads to the decomposition of the organic materials. Moreover, such conditions caused compression of the stratigraphy, especially in the top contexts (US 1 and 2): a loss of about 15-20 cm of level compared to 2001 was measured.

Materials and methods At Villaggio delle Macine many archaeological markers, both

ecofacts and artefacts were recovered (Fig. 2); the first category includes bones (also bone industry, such as deer bones worked to obtain axe handles and awls), seeds, fruits, piles, ashes and drying kilns. In the second category fall Grotta Nuova facies ceramics, bronze artefacts (axes and daggers), lithic industry (lithic cores, flakes and débitage), ambers, glassy faïence, clay fishing weights and a large number of millstones and grindstones (from which the site’s toponym derives). e variability of archaeological findings showed the multiplicity of specialized activities carried out during the past in distinct functional areas of the site. is confirms the need of a multidisciplinary approach in order to reconstruct, in a semi-micro scale, the features and distribution of activities and in a micro scale the site function itself. e analysis of the archaeological observables and the formation/deformation processes which created the archaeological record, provides a much-needed increase of our knowledge and ultimately improves our understanding of the site.

Archaeological as well as palaeobotanic, archeozoological and geological integrated studies allow a well-grounded recognition of the structured human activity that developed at the site. Furthermore, an ongoing research project based on the surface spatial analysis of the site’s abandonment plan is ongoing; this aims to analyse the frequency and the spatiality of material evidences into a certain spatio-temporal interval in order to explore the abandonment and last phase of site. is research will allow us to clarify the role performed by post-depositional processes in the rearrangement of spatial distribution of these artefacts and ecofacts into the archaeological record. en, thanks to the data derived by archaeological surveys and the excavations we


Figura 1: Plan of USs 6 and 185 recovered during the 2009-2012 excavations (N. Tomei); 2 – General picture of the USs 6 and 185 (2012 excavation).

will reconstruct all the steps, from the depositional to the post-depositional and taphonomic processes, which led to the formation and deformation of archaeological record as it was during its discovery.

Preliminary results Some aspects of the economy of this Bronze Age community

were clarified through geological analysis: in particular, the study of two cores, sampled in the framework of the European project PALICLAS (Palaeoenvironmental Analysis of Italian Crater Lake and


Adriatic Sea Sediments), allowed to recognize a strong decrease of organic-matter content within the sediment (Lami et al 1996). is denotes an oxidizing environment with low water productivity during the 4th millennium BP. Under the same project the substitution, among Cladocerans (Arthropoda), of the genus Daphnia with Bosmina has been recognized. is biological event is well correlated with a deforestation event (Guilizzoni et al 2002). Indeed, the analysis showed an increasing rate of sedimentation and a prevalence of non-arboreal pollen in the examined interval: these were recognized as the results of one of the major deforestation events, ascribed by some authors to agricultural activity during the Bronze Age (Magri & Follieri 1989). Both the slope erosion, with the resulting increase in the rate of sedimentation and the recognized biological events are consistent with a dramatic reduction of forest cover, probably resulting in part from an over-exploitation of the woodlands: during this phase, we can pinpoint the exploitation of the Villaggio delle Macine (Angelini et al 2006). In confirmation, palaeobotanic analysis (Carra et al 2007) validated this scenario: indeed, the woodland environment seems to be the most widespread, with a 71%, while the dry/wet grasslands and lake/water environment show very similar values of presence (between 13-16%). Moreover, thanks to the good preservation of silty deposits, different types of growing, harvesting and gathering plant resources have been collected. e abundance and the diversity of the recognized species, both wild and cultivated could be related to a strategy of diversification, adopted to minimize the risk of losing the whole harvest. e variety of cultivated species found at the site reflects the high variability of their exploitation, as food as well as medicine, fibres and for their psycothropic effects (Angle et al 2011). e great availability of wooden poles allowed dendrochronological analyses, carried out on samples collected in situ during the excavation campaigns and surveys. rough these partial investigations a site sector with 5 groups of synchronized poles was identified. ose, mediated with other poles, led to reconstruct a 95-year-long chronology of the sector. e chronology includes the ring series of 22 items, among which is the series related to 6 poles analysed during the earlier investigations. e presence of at least part of the sapwood on different samples considered in the chronology, allowed to identify at least three different dejection phases: the first one is dated to the years 49-56 of the relative chronology, the second one in the years 63-76, the third one in the years 85-96 (Martinelli, in press).

Furthermore, archaeozoological analysis revealed the presence of several species, both wild and domesticated at the site. e high variability of wild species recovered at the site from almost all the analyzed layers, is extremely significant in that it is not found in other coeval Italian archaeological sites.

e number and variety of recognized non-domestic species as Cervus elaphus as well as Capreolus capreolus, Sus scropha, Vulpes vulpes, Meles meles & Lepus sp confirms the importance of hunting in this community. Among the remains ascribed to wild animals’ deer are absolutely dominant, revealing a high incidence of specialized hunting, probably practiced in the large forested areas near the village. Moreover, the presence of deer of different age classes allows to identify the specific period of this practice, which should have occurred


between the end of summer and the beginning of autumn (Angle et al 2007; Tagliacozzo et al 2009).

Finally, the analysis of artefacts allows an accurate reconstruction of the site’s exploitation within the Early Middle Bronze Age: most of pottery can be related to the Grotta Nuova facies, characterized by numerous band-handles, bowls with upright neck and rim, carinated cups and carinated bowls with rim flattened on the inside. Furthermore, sherds referable to the contemporaneous Protoapenninic phases, such as cups with a surmounted band-handle or with a handle on the rim, are attested. Nevertheless, linked to the lowest levels of the site, numerous vessels and sherds that could be

Figura 2: Some archaeological remains found during the 2012 excavation (D. Mancini).


dated to the end of the Early Bronze Age were found. Amongst the artefacts, some widespread metallurgic objects were identified, both from the surveyed and excavated levels and from previous findings at the site; these are dated to the early Middle Bronze Age and consist of daggers, axes and other tools (such as spearheads).

Furthermore, stone artefacts with multiple functions are attested: flint arrowheads, stone axes (probably linked to hunting activities), millstones and grindstones (related to crop milling and probably to leather and fibre processing), and small spheres whose function is still unknown. Two categories of precious objects were finally recovered at Villaggio delle Macine: ambers and faience. e peculiarity lies in the first case in the scanty distribution of amber along the Italian territory during the first phases of the Middle Bronze Age; according to literature this type of amber, of succinite group, was attested only in 3 archaeological sites (as Olmo di Nogara, Fiavè and Grotta Manaccora) (Angelini et al 2006). In the case of faience objects, attested across the entire Italian peninsula during this chronology, some conical buttons and beads found during the excavation campaigns at the site are comparable to some findings of the Mercurago’s site (Bellintani et al 2006).

Discussione archaeological data obtained so far suggest a forest

environment which surrounded our lakeside settlement. Hunting and agriculture seem to have been the main activities carried out at the site, probably favoured by the presence of large fertile land surfaces and the relatively huge forested available areas. Two main aspects make this context remarkable: first of all, since the site was initially submerged, the high preservation rate of the organic remains. is condition allowed the identification of structures (as wooden beams and so forth) which are still a unicum in Tyrrhenian central Italy for this chronology, due to the very acid soils which characterized this territory. However, when the site partially emerged, the issue of preservation came to light: although the earliest phases of this change permitted to carry out stratigraphic investigations of well-preserved contexts, this condition was rapidly followed by the progressive contexts compression due to the drying phenomenon, which also caused the high damage of wooden objects and structures. Furthermore, the variability of archaeological finds reinforce the peculiarity of site: some precious objects proved the presence of trading routes on a national (or even wider) scale which included the Villaggio delle Macine. ese extra-territorial relations and contacts allow to expand our knowledge about the economic and internal complexity of the site.

Future perspectivee multidisciplinary approach applied in our archaeological

case-study allows to reconstruct some aspects of the past society that lived at the Villaggio delle Macine. rough the analysis of material evidences derived from some excavations campaigns and surveys we were able to recognize the multiplicity of activities carried out at the site and to characterise the most likely surrounding environment. However, other aspects appear still unknown due to the lack of extensive excavations: in order to partially overcome this issue, we


carried out surface spatial analysis of the site’s abandonment plan. As a future perspective, we will study the artefacts and ecofacts’ distribution and their density, as this can help to shed light on the abandonment strategy enacted by the inhabitants of the settlement, as well as the effects of post-depositional processes which affected the archaeological record under study.

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Correlating environmental events with human trends: a Late Bronze Age site and fluvial context in the Middle Euphrates Valley (Northeast Syria)

JORGE SANJURJO-SÁNCHEZUniversity Institute of Geology “Isidro Parga Pondal”, University of A Coruña, Campus de Elviña, 15071 A Coruña, Spain ([email protected])

JUAN-LUIS MONTERO FENOLLÓS Department of Humanities, University of A Coruña, Campus de Esteiro, 15403 Ferrol, Spain ([email protected])

Abstract: We have studied a Bronze Age archaeological site (abandoned in the Late Bronze Age II) located beside an ancient river channel in the Middle Euphrates Valley. In such river stretch, a single meandering channel existed that was moved and filled with flash flood sediments from a wadi. We have dated the sediment of the palaeochannel infill by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), briefly tested in this area. e obtained ages allowed making a correlation between the palaeochannel infill process and significant environmental events recorded in other nearby palaeoenvironmental sequences, concluding that meandering is a highly probable cause of the site abandonment.

Keywords: luminescence dating, palaeomeander, Mesopotamia, Euphrates, Bronze Age

Résumé: Nous avons étudié un site archéologique de l’âge du Bronze (abandonné au Bronze récent II) situé près d’un ancien canal du Moyen Euphrate syrien. Dans ce secteur du fleuve il y avait un méandre qui a été déplacé et rempli par des sédiments d’un wadi. Nous avons daté le sédiment du paléo-méandre par luminescence stimulée optiquement (OSL), récemment testée dans la région. Les dates obtenues ont permis établir une liaison entre le processus de remplissage du paléo-méandre et des significatifs changements du milieu attestés dans d’autres séquences paléo-environnementales proches, et conclure que le changement du canal est probablement l’une des principales raisons de l’abandon du site.

Mots-clés: datation par luminescence, paléo-méandre, Mésopotamie, Euphrate, Age du Bronze


1. IntroductionRiver systems are excellent monitors of environmental

changes and fluvial sediments provide important records of landscape evolution, both climatic and environmental changes and human activities in the past. Mesopotamian floodplains preserve information about Holocene climatic conditions and prehistoric cultures. Early Sumerian civilizations were born on banks of the River Euphrates (Syria) about +6 ka BP. Climatic changes during mid-Holocene has been recognized as one of the main causes of the collapse of some civilizations, as occurred with collapse of the Akkadian empire, dated as 4175±150 yr BP (Cullen et al., 2000). Such climatic changes can also affect movements of people and thus, occupation and abandonment of ancient towns, some of them found beside relict meanders (Lönnqvist et al., 2007).

roughout the Holocene, and namely the Bronze Age period, complex societies exhibited marked resilience to landscape evolution. e Bronze Age is particularly interesting because at its beginning societies were quite rural (with probable low impact on vegetation), but became urbanized (Akkermans and Schwartz, 2003) and climatic changes occurred impacting such societies (Wick et al., 2003). In the Middle Euphrates River, some ancient urban settings are closely associated with abandoned courses and meanders of the river, as the river was the main communication pathway between some cities (Wilkinson, 1999; Lönnqvist et al., 2007). Meandering is frequent in this part of the river favoured by a low floodplain gradient (0.04%) and floods (Demir et a., 2007). Moreover, it is known that a single thread meandering channel existed in this area in the Bronze Age (Geyer and Besançon, 1996). us, studies on such meandering could provide information on the occupation, abandonment and evolution of ancient towns and its causes.

1.1. Luminescence dating in the River Euphrates Dating alluvial sediments in Mesopotamia has been mostly

performed by incorporated 14C of charcoals. Such method does not always allow dating the sediments and obtained ages are often overestimated (Lang and Hönscheidt, 1999). Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) allows direct dating of the deposition event of the sediment layers and OSL studies on this kind of sediments have been successful in the last years. OSL dates the moment of deposition and burial of sediments as the OSL signal is bleached due to daylight exposure during transport of mineral grains (e.g. in fluvial transport) and grows up after burial due to the exposure of ionizing radiation (Aitken, 1998). However, it has been proven that OSL dating of fluvial sediments can be problematic as the ages obtained might be overestimated due to incomplete bleaching of the residual signals at the time of sediment deposition. us, if sunlight exposure does not erase the residual dose, the estimated absorbed dose (equivalent dose or ED) will result from luminescence emission of a mixture of well bleached grains (before burial) and grains keeping some residual dose (plus burial dose). Such ED will overestimate the dose absorbed during burial and will provide overestimated ages. is is probable in fluvial sediments, as solar resetting of water-transported sediments is limited by the attenuation of light through a water column and due to the


turbidity induced by suspended sediment transport. We do not have information on such effect in the River Euphrates sediments as few OSL dates have been reported in this river.

1.2. Aim of this workis paper studies the aggradation of an abandoned river

meander of the Middle Euphrates linked to a wadi and an archaeological site, by dating sediment layers by OSL. Wadi is an arabic word used to refer ephemeral intermittent streams in dry environments containing water during heavy rains. ey are common in the Middle Euphrates Valley, and they meet the present Euphrates channel or relict channels (paleomeanders). Studies on the aggradation of sediments on wadies in this area have been reported, based on charcoal dating (Deckers and Riehl, 2007). However, no previous studies based on OSL dating of fluvial sediments are found.

A sediment profile in a paleomeander-wadi intersect was investigated and other two samples were taken on the wadi lateral sediment layers next to the paleomeander. e sediment section is composed of poorly sorted gravel layers alternating with fine-grained deposits. Poorly sorted gravels in clayey sand matrix suggest flashflood-like conditions unlike thin layers of better-sorted sandy deposits suggest a moresteady flow. Such deposits filled the paleomeander channel, suggesting that the aggradation process occurred after or during meandering. Such processes should affect to the interest of the strategic occupation of Tell Qubr Abu al-‘Atiq (referred here as TQ) in Deir-Ez-Zor (Syria) in the Bronze Age. is is a close archaeological site recently excavated and dated. e site is located on a Pleistocene terrace of the river and it was inhabited in the Bronze Age and definitively abandoned about 2.9 ka BP (Sanjurjo-Sanchez and Montero Fenollós, 2012). e site is a very probable strategic city due to the closeness to a paleomeander and the Halabiya Gorge (figure 1). It is known that a single thread meandering channel existed in this area during the Bronze Age (Geyer and Besançon, 1996), at least until ~2.9 ka BP (Morozova, 2005). us, although the destruction of the site was suggested to be due to a big fire (Sanjurjo-Sanchez and Montero Fenollós, 2012), the abandonment could be related with meandering.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Sediment profiles and sample collection Previously to the sampling, sediments were observed and

described, to assess the conditions of water flow at which the studied sedimentary record was formed. Samples were taken by hammering PVC cores (30 cm long and 10 cm in diameter) into sediment infill (after cleaning the sedimentary profile). ree samples (TQA.09.T1, TQA.09.T2, TQA.09.T5) were taken from a same profile (of the paleomeander infill), and two more from nearby sidewall deposits of the wadi (TQA.09.T3, TQA.09.T4). A pottery fragment (TQA.09.T2C) was collected from a sampled layer (bottom sample of the paleomeander infill).

2.2. Luminescence analysese sediment cores were opened in subdued red light and


grains from the central part were used for luminescence analyses in the Luminescence Laboratory of the University of A Coruña (Spain). ey were dried and sand grains within the diameter range 90-180 µm were extracted by sieving. After sieving, grains were water-washed and treated with HCl and H2O2 to remove carbonates and organic matter, respectively. Quartz extraction was carried out by high density liquid including a final HF etching step (to eliminate remaining feldspars and the alpha contribution of quartz grains). For the pottery sample, a 2mm layer from each fragment surface was removed by sawing with a diamond-impregnated wheel. e samples were crushed in a vice and quartz grains were extracted by the procedure used for sediments.

A single-aliquot regenerative dose (SAR) protocol was used to estimate the ED of quartz grains of the sediment samples (Murray and Wintle, 2000). All measurements were taken on an automated Risø TL/OSL-DA-15 reader equipped with an EMI 9635 QA photomultiplier tube and using an internal 90Sr/90Y source that provides 0.120±0.003 Gy/s. To measure OSL, sample grains were mounted on stainless steel discs using silicone spray. A medium-small amount of grains (<250 grains) was used due to the low signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity. Quartz OSL and TL was carried out with an optical filter Hoya U-340. For the pottery sample, TL was used by the additive dose protocol (Aitken, 1985) to estimate the ED. 5 mg of quartz grains were taken and mounted on stainless steel cups. Beta irradiation was performed two weeks before TL measurements. To test for sensitivity changes, first and second TL growth curves where compared. e annual dose rates (Aitken, 1985) were estimated in the laboratory using High-Resolution -Spectrometry (HRGS) for the sediment samples. To estimate the internal dose of the pottery fragment, U and contents were measured by Inductive Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) was used to measure K (table 1). Conversion factors of Adamiec and Aitken (1998) were used to

Figure 1: Map with the location

of the studied sites.


estimate annual dose rates from quartz grains neglecting the alpha dose. e cosmic dose was calculated according to Prescott and Huton (1994).

3. Results

3.1. Characteristics of the sediments e sedimentary infill of the paleomeander consisted of

alternating layers of poorly sorted sand-gravel with pebbles and poorly sorted sand matrix with scarce pebbles and cobbles, although also some thin layers of cobbles and pebbles can be observed in the profile (figure 2). ese heterogeneous matrices are indicative of vigorous flash-flood conditions in the wadi. However, the sediments found in the nearby floodplain are fine-grained clayey silt that corresponds to steady slow flow in the river channel. ree thin layers with similar characteristics are observed in the palaeochannel infill (those dated by OSL). us, they correspond to moments of weaker flows, steady slow flows and/or intensive land use in the area, as have been observed previously in nearby areas (Deckers and Riehl, 2007).

Figure 2: Pictures of the studied sediment profiles: (A) palaeomeander infill; (B) sidewall wadi deposit that corresponds to the sample TQA.09.T3; (C) sidewall wadi deposit that corresponds to the sample TQA.09.T4.


e sediments of the sidewalls of the wadi, where the sample TQA.09.T3 was taken, are formed by layers of alternating layers of cobbles and/or pebbles in poorly sorted sand-gravel matrices. is is again indicative of vigorous flash-flood conditions. e profile of the sample TQA.09.T4 comprises a sidewall of about 2 m height formed by alternating layers of cobbles and/or pebbles in poorly sorted sandy matrix, indicating vigorous flash flood conditions alternating with less vigorous flows. e dated layer is formed by a matrix with scarce pebbles was also dated by OSL.

3.2. Luminescence ages e measurements of the radioactive content showed similar

results for 238U and 232 series and variability on the 40K activity among samples (table 1). Calculated ratios for 238U/232, 226Ra/232 and 210Pb/232 (Degering and Krbetschek, 2007) are closed to 1 (figure 3) showing negligible disequilibrium. However, 40K activity shows important variability, above all in the samples taken in the meander infill and 40K activity strongly decreases with depth.

e water content was assessed in the laboratory by weighing before and after drying and water saturation was estimated on all samples. Samples were taken a few metres above the river water table (except the paleomeander bottom samples) and they gave a content as

Figure 3: Comparative plot

of the obtained luminescence ages

and some environmental

features that changed during

the studied period.


between ~3 and ~8 % for most samples. However, for bottom samples of the palaeomeander infill ~13% and ~20% water contents were estimated as they are near the water table.

e OSL shine-down curves display poorly bright signals and low signal to noise ratio are observed for both natural and regenerated OSL signals. However, the fast OSL component is reset by light exposure in a few seconds, being suitable for dating. Due to such low ratio, the OSL should provide scatter and imprecise EDs. For poorly bleached samples, the ED can be obtained by observing the dose distributions. However, low signal levels difficult investigation of incomplete bleaching observing ED distributions, as the larger aliquots (more grains) required to obtain measurable signals mask the variability caused by partial bleaching (Madsen and Murray, 2009). Nevertheless, the samples show not measurable OSL signals when small aliquots are used. In fluvial sediments, the sunlight bleaching of water-transported grains can be incomplete due to light attenuation through a water column and turbidity, causing age overestimation.

To assess the ED a reliable method for fluvial samples is the internal-external consistency criterion (omsen et al., 2007; Medialdea, 2013). e younger studied samples showed very low EDs with this criterion, and they are susceptible to undergoing a phenomenon known as thermal transfer (Madsen and Murray, 2009) that also causes age overestimation. We have carried out thermal transfer experiments, that consisted on measurements carried out on several aliquots per sample at increasing preheat temperatures after bleaching (Rhodes, 2000). e experiments have shown negligible transfer below 260ºC preheat. Recovery tests showed satisfactory measured/given dose ratios from 1.05±0.03 to 1.1±0.08. Resulting OSL ages (table 1) range from 2.65±0.24 to 0.68±0.11 ka BP for the palaeochannel infill, and from 1.27±0.11 to 0.52±0.09 ka BP for the wadi deposits. We can distinguish two different sedimentation rates from these data: a first period between 2.65±0.24 and 2.46±0.23 ka BP with a rate of ~0.36 cm a-1, and a second period between 2.46±0.23 and 0.68±0.11 ka BP with ~0.045 cm a-1. e pottery fragment (TQA.09.T2C) provided an age of 3.02±0.34 ka BP, fitting the age of the sediment layer where it was found and the last occupation of TQA (3.4-2.9 ka BP) period within errors.

4. DiscussionScarce references can be found to OSL dating of fluvial

sediments of the Middle Euphrates. Previous studies on the OSL of similar sediments are those performed on sediments of nearby wadis (Deckers and Riehl 2007; Vandenberghe, 2011; Hilgers, 2011) and archaeosediments (Sanjurjo Sánchez et al., 2008; Sanjurjo-Sánchez and Montero Fenollós, 2012). All the studied sediments showed scarce quartz that exhibited poorly bright OSL signals and low signal to noise ratios, hindering the calculation of precise dates, as occurs in this study. Despite these problems, such ages allow correlating sediments with floods and strong rain events, as evidenced from the sediment characteristics and previous studies (Deckers and Riehl 2007; Kaniewski et al 2011; Deckers, 2011).

e obtained OSL ages correspond with periods of important floods as some evidences have shown, matching the characteristics of


the studied sediment (poorly sorted gravel). Such periods of floods are related to dry and catastrophic rain events, described in different periods of the late Holocene (Deckers and Riehl 2007; Bar-Matthews et al., 2003; Kaniewski et al 2011).

e aggradation and infill of the paleomeander (TQ.09.T2 age) started approximately after the abandonment of TQA around ~2.9 ka BP (Sanjurjo-Sánchez and Montero Fenollós, 2012). Such abandonment is marked by the sediment infill of the site (Sanjurjo-Sánchez and Montero Fenollós, 2012). Archaeosediments of tells in Mesopotamia are formed by the destruction of the adobe bricks of the buildings in such sites (Sanjurjo Sánchez et al., 2008), and these sediments have been dated in the site in 2.93±0.24 ka BP. e abandonment of ancient cities in Mesopotamia has been related with different causes from climatic changes to social or war conflicts (Willkinson, 1999; Cullen et al., 2000; Deckers and Riehl 2007). However, spatial and temporal complexity of Holocene climate change has been observed in the area (Mayewski et al., 2004). Late Bronze Age (LBA) cities and states from Greece through Mesopotamia to Egypt declined or collapsed around 3.1 ka BP (Kaniewski et al 2010), and this has been called the LBA collapse (Weiss, 1982), As possible causes, suggestions include destructions by war conflicts, internal social collapses, climatic, environmental or natural disasters, deforestation and technological innovations (Cullen et al., 2000; Kaniewski et al 2010; Deckers and Pessin 2010).

Paleoclimatic studies underline moister climatic conditions in the area up to 4 ka BP (figure 3), followed shortly by a drier period (Wick et al., 2003). Sporadic high-energy deposits have been associated with flash floods and exceptional rains, due to climatic drying during 3.3 to 3.0 ka BP (Deckers and Riehl 2007; Reculeau, 2011), although the development of large-scale irrigation systems or a combination of both processes has also been suggested as a possible cause of this environmental changes between 3.3 and 2.6 ka BP (Deckers and Riehl, 2007; Reculeau, 2011). In the case studied here, it seems probable that the abandonment of the site could be related with the river meandering, as the age infill of the paleomeander (TQA.09.T2 and TQA.09.T1 ages) fit the last period (figure 3). Due to meandering, the new river channel can be located far from the site, and the strategic location does not make sense. Such river dynamics of the Euphrates have been related with the abandonment of other sites (Kuzucuoglu et al., 2004) as the area was part of the main commercial routes linking Mesopotamia to Central Anatolia. However, we cannot completely discard anthropogenic causes to the abandonment of the archaeological site.

Climatic records also indicate dry conditions between 2.4 and 2.1 ka BP (Bar-Matthews and Kaufman, 1998), matching the age of TQ.09.T1 (2.43±0.23 ka BP). Other different climatic records in the area (Near East) indicate relatively dry conditions (after a more humid period) in the 1.2-1.0 ka BP period (Kaniewski et al 2011). Such period coincides with the Muslim Era (1.36 to 1.1 ka BP) and it corresponds with TQ.09.T3, the top layer of the paleomeander infill (1.27±0.11 ka BP). e lateral sediments of the wadi, TQ.09.T4 and TQ.09.T5 (0.52±0.09 and 0.68±0.11 ka BP, respectively) correspond with a more humid period, comprised between 0.95-0.65 ka BP (Bar-


Matthews et al., 2003; Kaniewski et al 2011) matching the Crusader period (0.9-0.7 ka BP).

5. ConclusionsOSL dating of Holocene alluvial sediments and Late

Pleistocene terraces is an useful tool to study the evolution of the Middle Euphrates Valley (Syria). is is interesting to observe the effect of climatic changes on human populations, as climatic changes during the Holocene have been recognized as one of the main causes of the collapse of Sumerian civilizations. However, OSL of such sediments show different problems such as poorly bright OSL signals, low signal to noise ratio and partial bleaching of some samples.

In this work, alluvial sediments of a wadi and a paleomeander infill have been studied by OSL dating. As a result, imprecise OSL ages are obtained. Despite this, the calculated OSL ages fit different climatic events. is is indicative of the usefulness of OSL dating to study this kind of sediments, despite the observed problems. e OSL dating of a paleomeander infill beside a dated Bronze Age site, indicate a correlation between the abandonment of the site and the river meandering. us, OSL dating of Holocene meanders of the Middle Euphrates floodplain could allow finding new archaeological sites and studying the climate-human correlation during the Holocene.

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Figure 1: Proposals (previous).

Is processualist the shamanic interpretation of Palaeolithic art? Epistemological approach to the possible relationship between interpretations of Palaeolithic art and Archaeological theoriesJOSE FERNANDEZ QUINTANO Philosopher

Abstract: Is it possible to compare archaeological theories and interpretations of Palaeolithic art? Interpretations of Palaeolithic art are influenced by archaeological theories? Comparing Processualism with shamanic interpretation, we address this matter.

Key-words: Palaeolithic art, rock art, processualist, shamanic interpretation.

Résumé: Est-il possible de comparer les théories archéologiques avec les interprétations de l'art paléolithique ? Les théories archéologiques, influencent les interprétations de l'art paléolithique ? En comparant processualisme avec l'interprétation chamanique de l'art paléolithique, ces questions sont abordées.

Mots-clés: art paléolithique, art rupestre, processualisme, interprétation chamanique

1 Ethnoarchaeology is based on anthropological hypothesis about current primitive societies to carry them prehistoric societies2 It is debated whether primitive societies can explain the characteristics of prehistoric societies3 In the history of humanity and today is subject of research and debate "what is human being": social influences, genetics...


Introduction

is communication has two main influences: 1. In the table 2, Criado relates anthropological theories with archaeological theories.

a. Is it possible to create a comparative framework for archaeological theories and theories that interpret Palaeolithic art? is leads to the following question: Is processualist the schamanic interpretation of Palaeolithic art?2. e second influence is Bintliff's article: “e death of archaeological theory?” Right at the start he considers whether archaeology would benefit from discounting the dogmatic theories and ideologies that have obscured our pathways to reconstructing the past over the last 25 years (Bintliff, 2011, p. 7). At the end of the article he proposes that archaeologists use all the possible theories and models (Bintliff, 2011, p. 20-21).

a. is article led me to wonder whether it would be possible to write an article with the title: “e death of the interpretation of Palaeolithic art?” at is, whether we should consider the theories developed to date to explain it as falling short; whether we should be open to new models that might help shed light on its meaning.

I. PROPOSALS

A1. All archaeological theories offer an explanation of the material archaeological record, criticizing previous theories. (Trigger, 1992; Renfrew y Bahn, 2007; Johnson, 2009)

Figure 2: Comparison

between cultural theories and

archaeological theories (Felipe

Criado, 2012, p. 38).


A1 (denial). No archaeological theory is currently accepted as the sole truth by all archaeologists (Trigger, 1992, p. 13)A2. ere are many proposals to work with any given archaeological theory, or even with other forms of knowledge other than science. (Bintliff, 2011, p. 20-21)

A2 (denial). Eclectically bringing together proposals from various theories cancels out the capacity for critical thinking, the historical motor for progress in many scientific disciplines. (Johnson, 2009, p. 228-9)A3. Some theories are rekindled or updated, including some proposals rival theories (Renfrew y Bahn, 2007, p. 451-2)

A3 (denial). Archaeological theory is in a state of paralysis and no new paradigms are emerging (Criado, 2012, p. 112)

A1. Shamanic interpretation is processualist:

1 - EXPLANATIONTraditional Archaeology "describes" the fossil record.

Processualism sets out to "explain" the past (Renfrew y Bahn, 2007, p. 37). Schamanic interpretation seeks to "explain" Palaeolithic cave art (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 61; 78; 136).

2 - MIDDLE RANGE THEORIESe archaeological record is made up of material remains

lacking in meaning (static). In order to explain the past, Binford uses middle range theories which study in the present day (dynamic) primitive societies that behave in a similar way (Binford, 1988, p. 23).Shamanic interpretation rests on the ubiquity of shamanism in present day primitive societies to confirm a cave art created by shamans in altered states of consciousness (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 77).

3 - SCIENCE AND ANTHROPOLOGYAccording to Binford, archaeologists need to be more

scientific (Johnson, 1989, p. 38) - he favours natural over social sciences (Binford, 1988, p. 25-26)- and more anthropological -he admits the ethno-archaeological analogy (Binford, 1988, p. 27). Shamanic interpretation draws on neuropsychology, on the characteristics of the art itself and its archaeological context to propose that Palaeolithic art is shamanic in origin (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 143). He also points to present day schamanic practices (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 13).

4 - GENERALISATIONFor processualism, that a piece of ceramics is decorated with a

zigzag design is secondary. Rather, it seeks to understand its function in the social and economic context (Johnson, 2009, p. 43-44). Shamanic interpretation is not about interpreting the motifs of cave art, but about examining the process by which they are created, which in a certain number of cases is associated with altered states of consciousness (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 143). e specific meaning of each sign is secondary. In fact, each sign might have any number of meanings (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 87).


5-OPTIMISMProcessualism sustained, positively, that we should try to

explain the past, criticizing traditional archaeologists for the pessimism of their premise that archaeological data were insufficient for reconstructing prehistory (Renfrew y Bahn, 2007, p. 37). Clottes and Lewis-Williams believe that Palaeolithic art can be explained and reject outright the pessimism of those who hold that its interpretation is impossible (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 134-5).

A1. Shamanic interpretation is not processualistIn processualism hypotheses needed to be corroborated

(Renfrewy Bahn, 2007, p. 37). Clottes and Lewis-Williams acknowledge the fact that their schamanic hypotheses come from outside of the scientific domain, and are therefore neither demonstrable nor refutable (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 138).

A2. An uncomfortable, heterodox theory:Shamanic interpretation is the most recent of the main

archaeological theories and of those that interpret Palaeolithic art. Chronologically it emerges in a post-processual and cognitive processual context. It would be easy, then, to suggest that schamanic interpretation is a theory that ought to be related to one or the other of these two currents. However, this is not the case: schamanic interpretation in fact emerges in the context of the debate then occurring in archaeology between processualism and post-processualism.

A2. Why is there no processualist interpretation of Palaeolithic art?First of all, Palaeolithic art is art because of its execution

(concept art –controversy-: Bueno, de Balbín y Alcolea, 2003, p. 13-19) and Palaeolithic because of its chronology. For processualism, without the artists, without the society that created the art, without a complete chronology of cave art motifs, it is almost impossible to propose hypotheses regarding the social, environmental and economic structures in which Palaeolithic art emerged. It is crucial for the advancement of human knowledge that theories work independently. A relationship between schamanic interpretation and any other archaeological theory is only useful if it offers up new hypotheses that can be tested to advance its confirmation.

A3. Which branch of science?Shamanic interpretation of Palaeolithic art is considered by its

authors as a human science (Clottes y Lewis-Williams, 2001, p. 138), emerging in response to the impossibility of finding indisputable premises in either neuropsychology or the palaeolithic archaeological record itself.4 Shamanic interpretation without neuropsychology

is paper does not analyze the shamanic interpretation of Palaeolithic art. Regarding the controversy of this proposal, see: ubiquity –controversy-: Bahn –In: Lorblanchet et al. 2006-, p.11-51; Francfort –In: Lorblanchet et al. 2006-, p. 137-192, Bolin, 2010, p. 33, Bednarik, 2013, p. 491-3; palaeolithic signs and phosphenic images – controversy-: Sanchidrián, 2001, p. 348; Bahn, 2003, p. 55; Bahn –In: Lorblanchet et al. 2006-, p.11-51, Helvenston et Bahn –In: Lorblanchet et al. 2006-, p. 52-52-67; Delluc D. –In: Lorblanchet et al. 2006-, p.68-104; criticism shamanic interpretation: Bahn, 2003; Lorblanchet et al., 2006; Bednarik, 2013. Also, Clottes and Lewis-Williams in the second edition (2001) answered the criticisms of the first edition (1996) (Clottes and Lewis-Williams, 2001, p 113-167).


pertains to the human sciences. Shamanic interpretation with neuropsychology can be thought of as pertaining to the hard sciences (Lewis-Williams, 2005, p. 185).

A3. Today:e current economic crisis has taken its toll on archaeology,

generating considerable disorientation. Current debate revolves around whether to continue under the values of a "greater good" or surrender to the despotism of the marketplace (Hernando, 2014, p. 128). In addition to this uncertainty, archaeology itself is undergoing a fracture between university archaeological activity on the one side and, on the

5Figure 3: Proposals with propositional logic formulas.

is denial; is “If... then...” (If the dating is 15,000 B.C. then it is paleolithic);is “and” (is panel is Palaeolithic and symbolic;is “or” (is panel or Palaeolithic or Levantine;

5


other, the emergence of a commercial archaeology based on the liberal use of archaeological heritage and its introduction into the marketplace (Criado, 2012, p. 114). is would see research displaced as the main driving force behind archaeology (Sánchez, 2014, p. 14). Archaeology is and always will be an activity that is immersed in the prevailing social, economic and ideological environment.

II. INFLUENCESIs it possible to establish a framework between archaeological

theories and theories which interpret Palaeolithic art?Processual ethnoarchaeology explains society from outside (etic), striving for utmost objectivity. In contrast, post-processual ethnoarchaeology tries to understand societies from within (emic), placing emphasis on the symbolic aspects (Cruz y Fraguas, 2009, p. 36-37). Transferred to Palaeolithic art, those theories that interpret it from outside, with hypotheses from other sciences, would be those influenced by processualism, while those that interpret it from inside, searching for a meaning from within, would be post-processualist. e question is whether or not archaeological theories and theories that interpret Palaeolithic art can be said to directly influence each other.

Acknowledgementsanks to Manfred and Katja Bader for your reading and comments. anks to Caroline for translating it into English.

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